Cognitive Dissonance: Conceptualization and Research Summary

Cognitive Dissonance

According to Hinojosa, Gardner, Walker, Cogliser, and Gullifor (2017, p.173), Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT) exists when an individual experience conflicting or contradicting situation between two or more cognitions, in which results in dissonance that causes unpleasant feelings of one’s self. The core of this literature review revolves around Conceptualisation and Research Summary, which includes Antecedents and Outcomes, of Cognitive Dissonance. Lastly, Practical Application will be implemented on the basis of those vital findings and discussions.

Conceptualisation of Cognitive Dissonance

McLeod (2018) states that Cognitive Dissonance Theory happens when the circumstance involves inconsistent attitudes, beliefs and behaviours, resulting in discomfort, which motivates the individual to reduce or eliminate the dissonance. Dissonance is the negative result or outcome of two conflicting cognition that the individual is experiencing (Festinger, 1957). Cognition refers to “attitudes, belief, or knowledge of one’s behaviour” (Festinger, 1957). In cognitive dissonance theory, trivialization and bolstering are included. According to Simon, Greenberg and Brehm (1995), Trivialization refers to downgrading the value of importance towards dissonance. As stated by Cooper (2007), bolstering refers to upgrading the value of importance towards cognitions.

Before Festinger discovered cognitive dissonance theory, Heider stated that an imbalance between cognitions would result in the individual to respond appropriately so it correlates, if otherwise, it would cause an unideal situation in 1925 (Festinger, 1957). After Heider, in 1955, Osgood and Tannenbaum suggest that individuals are likely to evaluate their behaviour and adjust accordingly within the existing source of information (Festinger, 1957, p.43).

In other words, cognitions are bits and pieces of information that the mind captures then the mind fills in those gaps which are missing, and another information enters the mind afterwards (Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones & Levy, 2015, p.184). Hinojosa, et al. (2017, p.173) indicates that Festinger has identified an equation for cognitive dissonance, which is M = D/ (D + C). Therefore, the sum of number of consistent cognitions and number of inconsistent cognitions divided by the number of inconsistent cognitions equals to the level of discomfort experienced by the individual (Hinojosa et al., 2017, p. 173). If it contradicts with each other, there is where cognitive dissonance comes in.

When cognitions are conflicting with each other, it results in cognitive discrepancy (Hinojosa et al., 2017, p. 174). Festinger (1957) implies that a perfect example of cognitive dissonance would be an individual who knows that smoking is dangerous but still smokes. With cognitive dissonance, the individual will ultimately experience negative feelings, such as depression, angry, frustrated, and others (Matz & Wood, 2005, p.24). All of these occurs due to cognitive discrepancy. By understanding the importance of the concept clearly, people can avoid cognitive dissonance from happening.

However, Harmon-Jones (2000) implies that more conducted research indicates that violating one’s perception results in the risk of increasing dissonance, but it does not necessarily cause dissonance. Furthermore, Harmon-Jones, Amadio and Harmon-Jones (2009) address the fact that Festinger (1957) did not get in depth on the results of cognitive dissonance, which are reasons on why cognitive dissonance releases negative feelings or why it motivates the individual to adjust their cognitions. From Festinger’s (1957) perspective, he provides appropriate strategies on decreasing dissonance. However, Vaidis and Bran (2019, p.3) explained that it does not comply with reducing the chances of inconsistency which may elevate the problem back.

If we compared with emotional labour, it is more or less similar as both concepts experience negative feelings. Hochschild (1983) stated that emotional labour refers to a form of exchange between employee’s workload with any type of compensation, such as wages and others, which are expected to lead to negative outcomes. However, there are some slight differences as Morris and Feldman (1996) suggest that emotional labour exists when employees performed the company’s desired emotions or fake emotions portrayed by employees which are different from one’s self emotions known as emotional dissonance. Therefore, it can be distinguished by the fact that cognitive dissonance initiates when there are two different outcomes. Whereas, emotional labour initiates when there are two different emotions. But, both concepts are under the expectation against reality umbrella.

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Research Summary of Cognitive Dissonance

In this section, it identifies the findings and key research papers of cognitive dissonance. In which, it also includes the antecedents and consequences of the concept. By antecedents, it indicates the factors that lead to cognitive dissonance. Lastly, this section will discuss about the consequences of cognitive dissonance which are the outcomes.

Outcomes of Cognitive Dissonance

As demonstrated by Hinojosa et al (2017, p.174), an individual will be motivated to change their behaviour as well as fine-tuning their cognitions to reduce cognitive dissonance. Other than that, Acharya, Blackwell and Sen (2018, p.400) suggest that an individual will make an effort to change their opinion or judgement to match with their actions. Through hypocrisy paradigm, which allows individuals to think deeply on the reason of pursuing that behaviour, this enables individuals to have an urge for performing the action in the future (Aronson, Fried & Stone, 1991). When there is the existence of conflicting and contradicting situations, it forces the individual to fix or resolve the problem by returning to a state where the conflict is under control (Chung & Cheng, 2018, p.38). Cooper (2007) implies that research shows a consistent behavioural pattern of individuals adjusting their attitudes to avoid cognitive dissonance. Individuals will not adjust their attitudes and behaviours, if they experience less cognitive dissonance, which complies with the lack of motivation to do so on the basis of inconsistent information (Murray, Wood & Lilienfeld, 2012, p.526). Vaidis and Oberlé (2014, p.1097) discovered that an individual whom adjust their behaviour to manage their cognitive dissonance by taking the opposite route to have the situation under control.

During a situation when two cognitions are not compatible with each other, cognitions with more prone to changes are able to adjust their behaviour to cognitions that remains unchanged (Vaidis & Oberlé, 2014, p.1092). According to Ellliot and Devine research, they implied that participants, whom are less firm with their opinion, are likely to change their judgements on the specific matter and agree to the more-resistant participants (Miklosovic, 2010, p.18). In order to reduce dissonance, an individual will change their perception towards the behaviour when the individual voluntarily engages in the behaviour rather being forced to comply with it (Festinger, 1957; Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959; Elliot & Devine, 1994). Thus, an individual is likely to change or revoke their decision, adjusting the importance between alternatives, or establishing similarities between the alternatives (Metin & Camgoz, 2011, p.132)

Antecedents of Cognitive Dissonance

Acharya, Blackwell and Sen (2018, p.400) stated that an individual will experience negative feelings when their actions contradict with their standards. Cognitive Dissonance is established when two perceptions on the subject matter are conflicting, as if, one perception is boring while the other is interesting (Cooper, 2019, p.2). Harmon-Jones and Mills (1999, p.7) stated that dissonance exists when an individual action is unpleasant, from one’s perspective, to achieve their planned outcome. In which indicates that the greater the undesirable efforts to acquire the outcome, the greater the dissonance (Harmon-Jones & Mills, 1999, p,7). Elliot and Devine (1994) assessed cognitive dissonance and showed no signs of compatibility with positive effect. Likewise, Zhang, Xia, Liu and Han (2018, p.8) implied that discomfort leads to negative feelings.

Practical Application of Cognitive Dissonance

First and foremost, cognitive dissonance exists in our daily lives. And, it is our job to avoid those circumstances and experiences. Personally, I would say that this usually occurs when visiting restaurant. When a restaurant is so overrated, it becomes too hyped up. It does not live up to standards we were expecting. As a person, we would feel disappointed and that is where cognitive dissonance comes in. Another example could be a test. The materials given by the teachers were not hard. However, we would feel frustrated when the exam is actually hard and far from what we expected. If that happens, cognitive dissonance would be experienced by one’s self.

On the basis of the level of rewards, employees will adjust their efforts accordingly to reduce dissonance (Liu & Sundar, 2018, p.62). Liu and Sundar (2018, p.66) discovered that a perceived importance of a task increases when employees receive lower monetary reward, relatively, it results in cognitive dissonance. However, those employees who received low monetary rewards reduce their efforts to reduce cognitive dissonance (Liu & Sundar, 2018, p.66). Through the reduction of efforts, poorer performance done by the employees to align their rewards and importance of tasks for the reduction of cognitive dissonance (Liu & Sundar, 2018, p.68). In regard to those statements, employees need to be paid accordingly with their performance so they would not feel disappointment. With that being said, as a leader, I would pay staff’s salary in accordance to their performance in the upcoming future. By aligning staff’s employees with their performance, staffs would not experience negative feelings. In which, it will not result in cognitive dissonance. Through pay discrimination set by managers, cognitive dissonance can arise (Ryan, Prybutok & Zhang, 2006, p.3678). Likewise, Griffeth, Horn and Gaertner (2000) suggest that there is a negative correlation between job satisfaction with turnover and organizational commitment.

Therefore, I conclude that cognitive dissonance consists of negative feelings that we desperately try to avoid those type of experiences. Throughout this literature review, cognitive dissonance was conceptualized by defining and analysing the concept of cognitive dissonance. Moreover, cognitive dissonance was researched to have a better understanding on the concept which is further discussed with antecedents and outcomes. Lastly, the concept, itself, was placed in a real-life situation such as work and life experiences. And, how the concept exists in our daily lives which states the practical application of cognitive dissonance.

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