Art history can be defined in various ways depending on the person and their perspective. A brief definition of the term is the studying, identifying, interpreting, and understanding of artworks (i.e. paintings, sculptures, architecture) from different cultures with the consideration of the time period in which they were made. A lot can be learned through the artwork of cultures such as how humanity lived, what they valued, and what they believed in. With some research, the meaning and importance of certain objects and symbols can be uncovered, and that is what will be done in this paper. The two works to be discussed are the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ (Early Byzantine) and the ‘Virgin Hagiosoritissa Relief’ (Middle Byzantine) from the Byzantine collection at Dumbarton Oaks Museum. These two works will be compared on their style/iconography, media attributes and influence, conceptual ideas, and historical influence.
The specific style that characterizes Byzantine art was first arranged in the 6th century. Byzantine art is almost completely revolved around religious expression “with the impersonal translation of carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms” (Britannica.com). The style was a product of sophistication and spiritual expression. Christianity was adopted in the Early Byzantine time period by Emperor Constantine. This religion flourished and it had a great impact on the art created from thereon. Majority of artworks were created to serve as decorations for the interior of churches (i.e. domes, walls, and vaults). The ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’, the first artwork to be discussed, was part of the decoration in an early Byzantine church. It was created in the late 6th – 7th century (Early Byzantine). From just simply viewing and analyzing this work, it may be difficult to figure out what exactly is being seen. However, after doing some research, it is now known that this sculpture represents the resurrection of Christ. From first glance, the viewer can see that the color is dull and gray, and the form is irregular along the edges, which indicates that it is a piece of something. There are two crosses present (on opposite ends of the central axis within the piece) which represent Christianity, something within the religion, or Christ himself. There are also two parallelograms present, one (square) being slightly above the center of the piece and the other (rhombus) being towards the bottom next to one of the crosses. The square is the opening to the tomb and the rhombus represents the stone that was moved away to open the tomb. There are four pillars holding up a dome-like roof. This was most likely in reference to Byzantine churches because they adopted the plan of having four equal pillars extending from a dome. On each pillar there are carvings that look like some type of liquid is dripping, which represent Christ’s blood after his selfless sacrifice. This sculpture’s style and iconography will be compared to that of another sculpture also from the Byzantine period.
With Christianity spreading vastly, newcomers were brought up on the value of images in past experiences and they wanted to continue this in their Christian experiences (Farber). The next work to be discussed is the ‘Virgin Hagiosoritissa Relief; or just ’Hagiosoritissa'. The work was created in the mid-eleventh century (Middle Byzantine), which is also the first difference between the two works. If the meaning of the word Hagiosoritissa is already known, it is clear what is being seen in this work. This name came about to describe a specific type of portrait depicting the Virgin Mary. It shows Mary standing slightly from the side without her child, with both hands raised in prayer. The circle surrounding Mary’s head represents a halo. This technique was used for the Trinity, angels, Virgin Mary, and other saints. A similar comparison between the two sculptures is that they reflected scenes from the lives of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Just like the first work discussed, this piece has irregular edges and sides that indicates it was part of a bigger picture. “The Virgin Mary was often pictured high in half-dome covering one of the four radial arms” (Britannica.com). Although the stylistic and thematic interests of Early Byzantine flowed into the Middle Byzantine period, some changes were brought about in the arts. One example is the difference in the churches’ architecture. It was moved to a centralized cross-in-square plan, which is different from the four pillars and dome plan of Early Byzantine. Both sculptures, along with the Byzantine architectural plans, aided in the iconographic plans to intertwine architectural and pictorial expression.
Another similarity between the two sculptures, ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ and ‘Hagiosoritissa’, is that they were both made from stone or marble. The marble used to make the sculpture, ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’, has an interesting design within itself. There are some darker lines or swirls that give it a creamy and smooth appearance. This appearance helps with the shadows, as well as the lights and darks of the piece. The sculptor took some time to add detail to this sculpture. Even though it is a simple composition, the sculptor carved out all the objects (i.e. pillars, roof, shapes) in a way that gave this artwork depth. Another example of this is the subtle lines within the roof that make it look three-dimensional. Early Byzantine art was usually known for its ‘flatness’. Although, in one’s opinion, this sculpture’s illusion seems to teeter back and forth between two-dimensional and three-dimensional, it seems as though this sculpture was made on the brink of exploring outside that stereotype. Now, as stated before, the Hagiosoritissa sculpture is also made from stone or marble. This marble is significantly different compared to the first sculpture. For the most part the sculpture is a beige/tan color, which makes it look plain or bland. The texture looks rough like sandpaper or concrete. The media used to make this sculpture does not exactly make it an eye-catcher. However, after looking past the texture and appearance of the media, one notices the intricate details within the sculpture. There is some detail within Mary’s face, headscarf, and wristbands. There is a lot of detail in her garment. The lines and folds give a sense of movement, and shows the shadows projected from the several folds within the garment. This sculpture may not be completely three-dimensional, but it represents some naturalism, which was part of a revived interest in the classical past.
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The two works chosen to be discussed in this paper, both come from the Byzantine period but different centuries. So, in this section of this paper, the historical, economic, social, and cultural information of the Early and Middle centuries of Byzantine will be discussed. In 330, Emperor Constantine moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. After they adopted Christianity, the religion took over the Greco-Roman gods that once defined Roman religion and culture (Hurst). Some of the earliest churches were built during the Early Byzantine period. This explains why so many artworks were created during this time. They were created for the interior of churches, such as the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’. One known aspect of Christian art, that started in the 3rd century, was the absence of imagery. Themes of death and resurrection also came about. After Emperor Constantine passed away in 337, the empire fragmented into smaller political entities. Valentinian I came into power after Constantine’s death. In 364, he divided the land into western and eastern sections. He ruled over the west and gave power of the east to his brother. Over several centuries, the western empire began to break down. One of the reasons being multiple attacks from German invaders. At one point, the only territory they had left was Italy. In 476, barbarian Odoacer overthrew Emperor Augustus and Rome fell. The eastern part of the empire experienced a different outcome. Due to Constantinople surrounding them, they were less vulnerable to attacks. They had a stronger administrative center, internal political stability, and great wealth compared to other states of that time period; they also had better control over economic resources and a sufficient amount of manpower to fight off an invasion (history.com). Due to the eastern empire, also known as Byzantium, having all these advantages, they were able to survive after the fall of Rome. In 451, as of religion, the Council of Chalcedon established division of the Christian world. Even after the Islamic Empire began to spread, the Byzantine Empire prevailed as the leader of several eastern Christians. Justinian I took power in 527. During his reign, his army conquered part of the Western Roman Empire. Several outstanding monuments of the empire were made under his rule. An example of this is the great Hagia Sophia, a domed church of Holy Wisdom. During the late 6th century, the great Justinian I passed away. Even after his death, the Byzantine Empire continued as the largest and most powerful in Europe. However, accumulated debts from war left the empire in a serious financial crisis. His legislation dealt with anything involving their Christian way of life. Baptism was introduced and pagans were forced to attend church and convert. Baptism is one of many Christian religions that believe in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The resurrection of Christ is depicted in the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ using symbols. This was most likely created before the Quinisext Council of 692 ordered that Christ will only be represented in human form and not symbolically. The Quinisext Council (or Council in Trullo) was called together by emperor Justinian II. They were to issue disciplinary orders related to the second and third councils of Constantinople (Britannica.com). Also, during the late 7th century, going into Middle Byzantine, iconoclasm made its debut.
During the early centuries of the Middle Byzantine, a movement was created that “…denied the holiness of icons, or religious images, and prohibited their worship or veneration” (history.com). The movement was called iconoclasm. The Byzantine Empire experienced two periods of Iconoclasm in 730-787 and 814-842 (khanacademy.org). This was done because fear arose that people were praising the images of Holy beings rather than praising God himself. Only a few images survived, but the creation of Byzantine art continued to be made for over hundreds of years. This movement went back and forth under the rule of various Emperors. However, in 843 the display of religious artworks and icons were ruled in favor under Emperor Michael III. This explains why the Virgin Mary is seen again in the sculpture ‘Hagiosoritissa’. This work was created in the mid- 11th century Byzantine, which was after the movement ended. There was a significant rise in images and icons being used for decorations in the Byzantine churches and its adjacent walls. Art and architecture thrived due to the empire’s growing wealth and vast wealthy patrons. This was most likely due to the golden age under Michael III’s successor, Basil. Although Byzantium had less territory, they had more control over trade and more wealth. Churches, palaces, and institutions were beginning to be restored. Greek was deemed the official language of Byzantine, and the study of ancient Greek history and literature was promoted (history.com). Christianity, that started in Constantinople, spread from the Slavic lands and to the north. They successfully recovered some of eastern territories lost to the Arab armies in the 7th century. Some of these territories were Syria and Crete. Between the 7th-12th centuries, the military governorship of Byzantine provided management for the empire’s distant and expanding territories. The Middle Byzantine period was a great time for art and architecture due to the increasing wealth of the empire. During this time, the production of manuscripts, stone, and ivory carvings increased. Once again, this showed the interest in reviving classical art forms and ancient literature from Byzantium’s ancient past. Smaller churches were generally favored during this period, unlike the Hagia Sophia made under Justinian I’s rule. They still consisted of a dome, but they created a central plan. The ‘cross-in-square plan’ was one of the most popular. The domes and vaults were decorated with mosaics and frescoes. They covered the curved surfaces to create a dramatic effect or to depict a narrative. “Such monumental decoration reveals a careful consideration of how images would relate and respond to one another across space, both vertically and horizontally” (metmuseum.org). Artists were increasingly employed and paid to make decorations, such as figural images and icons, for the barrier of churches and the adjacent walls.
The two sculptures that have been discussed throughout this paper are currently being held at Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington, D.C. They are part of the Byzantine Collection and located in the same gallery. Another artwork that is included in the same gallery is a sculpture called Ares. It was created in the fourth-fifth century (Early Byzantine). It is believed that one of the reasons that this sculpture is in the same gallery as the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ and ‘Hagiosoritissa’, is that they are all Byzantine art. Another reason is that they are all sculptures/carvings. Lastly, they are all in the same gallery because they possibly represent something that they believed in at that time. The first two sculptures are about Christianity (i.e. the narratives and figures) and it is known that this religion was widely practiced in Byzantium. Byzantium, however, based a lot of their foundation on the Greeks, hence why the most spoken language was Greek. One of the most important attributes of the Greeks, was their belief in mythology. Ares is one of the twelve Olympian gods. He is the god of war and represents the violent and physical characteristics of war. So, when the sculpture Ares was created, they probably believed in at the time as the Greeks did. Or, they could have liked what he represented, which was war, since they went into war so much and conquered territories.
Art history defined is the study of or knowledge about contributions artists and works of art make to a culture or society that builds upon, reacts to, and/or rebels against, with the consideration of the time and place. Artwork can be objective or subjective. Objective meaning factual and subjective meaning belonging to, proceeding from (or relating to) one’s mind. The three sculptures discussed in this paper are examples of subjective art. They are subjective art because they are all things that people believed in at that time. They do not represent something that is factual and has evidence to back it up. Some might say they have evidence and try to convince others but that is their own experience. Everyone has their own personal beliefs and experiences when it comes to religion. Therefore, these sculptures are subjective because they are ideas that come from someone’s mind, not facts that are agreed upon universally. After doing research and writing this paper, there is a better understanding of what can be learned from pieces of artwork and the cultures they come from. When analyzing artworks, looking at the media, objects, symbols, and figures are like clues that can be pieced together to figure out the meaning or the importance. In addition, with knowing the culture and the background information, it is easier to understand why some artists do what they do, and why they put certain things into their works. For example, the ‘Fragment of Chancel Barrier’ and ‘Hagiosoritissa’ both represent something within Christianity. They were both part of the interior of a church for decoration. The artists were most likely paid to make them because during the time they were both made, several churches were being built. The Hagiosoritissa sculpture was created after the second iconoclastic controversy ended. So, of course after this, there was a rise in the production of icons and images that represented the Holy figures. Byzantium and Byzantine art experienced a lot of setbacks but they both overcame most. Art is one of the greatest ways to learn about history. This is one’s opinion because so much can be learned about different cultures such as what they believed in, what they valued, and their way of life.
Works Cited
- Brooks, Sarah. “Byzantium (ca. 330–1453).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/hd_byza.htm (originally published October 2001, last revised October 2009)
- Dr. Allen Farber, 'Early Christian art,' in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015, accessed March 24, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/early-christian-art/
- Dr. Ellen Hurst, 'Byzantine art, an introduction,' in Smarthistory, August 8, 2014, accessed March 24, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/a-beginners-guide-to-byzantine-art/.
- History.com Editors. “Byzantine Empire.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 24 Aug. 2010, www.history.com/topics/ancient-middle-east/byzantine-empire#section_6
- “Introduction to the Middle Ages | Art History (Article).” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-and-colonial-americas/medieval-europe-islamic-world/a/introduction-to-the-middle-ages
- Metmuseum.org, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/hd_byza.htm
- Teall, John L., and Donald MacGillivray Nicol. “Byzantine Decline and Subjection to Western Influences: 1025–1260.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 6 Feb. 2020, www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire/Byzantine-decline-and-subjection-to-Western-influences-1025-1260#ref9255.
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