Identify and comment in detailed analytical manner on the content and style of the passage. Your commentary should follow the text sequentially, and you need to indicate in the margin the line number of the verse(s) under discussion. For Dante, the relevance of the extract to the canto to which it belongs should emerge from your analysis, which should also be enriched, where appropriate, by reference to the Purgatorio or the Paradiso as a whole. An essay or a paraphrase will not be accepted in lieu of a commentary.
Paradiso XI
The “Paradiso” is the third and final book which comprises the Divine Comedy, written by Dante Alighieri between 1308 and 1320. The Canto on which I will be commenting is Paradiso XI and it is the eleventh out of thirty-three Cantos within the Paradiso. In this particular Canto, Dante the character has travelled with Beatrice and has reached the Sphere of the Sun, which is the fourth sphere on the journey to reach the Empyrean and for the soul to ascend to God.
In this sphere of the Sun, Dante meets the souls of the wise which include Thomas Aquinas, Peter Lombard, King Solomon, Paulus Orosius, and several other eminent philosophers and theologians from around Europe. These souls are said to provide light to the world and Paradise through their intellect. This intellect is brighter in this Sphere because it is closer to God, and at this point, Dante has also passed beyond the shadow of the Earth.
In the preceding canto, Canto X, Dante ascended with Beatrice and he became surrounded by a shining crowd of souls which we learn are wise spirits, but at first, are represented as twelve lights shining brightly which dance around Dante and Beatrice. The theologian Thomas Aquinas is the first to start speaking, which may perhaps suggest that he is among the most respected and admired by Dante the poet as a theologian himself. Aquinas serves as a main character in this canto. There is a line in this Canto, line 96 “u’ ben s’impingua se non si vaneggia” which Dante the character asks Thomas Aquinas to clarify in Canto XI. This is used by Dante the poet as an opportunity to portray his own religious and political agenda through Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure in the Paradiso in the two Cantos XI and XII in particular.
In Canto XI, Thomas Aquinas describes the life and biography of Saint Francis, the founder of the Franciscans and in Canto XII Bonaventure describes the life and biography of Saint Dominic, the founder of the Dominicans. These two Cantos are specular and are constructed in a similar way. This consists of first praising the founder of the order to which the person does not belong, and then a criticism or condemnation of the order to which that person does not belong, respectively. Thomas Aquinas was a Dominican and Bonaventure was a Franciscan. Dante the poet does this in order to show the harmony that exists in Heaven between these two orders, which was not the same on Earth at the time when the Paradiso was written.
Canto XI begins with a reflection by Dante the poet on his experience of being so far removed from the mortal world and now recognising how meaningless the actions and struggles of human beings are, now that he has journeyed even closer to God and is becoming more enlightened, both literally and metaphorically by the light of God. He seems to feel some relief from this, perhaps suggested by the “O” and the use of the exclamation point at the end of line 3.
Robert Hollander describes the beginning of the canto thus, “The opening nine verses of this canto summon images of ceaseless and futile human activity, from which Dante is happy to have been, at least temporarily, liberated.”[footnoteRef:1] Some scholars compare this epic beginning with that of the Latin poet Persius’s Satires, “O curas hominum, o quantum est in rebus inane” or translated as “O wearisome cares of men, o emptiness of the things we care for”[footnoteRef:2]. [1: (Hollander, 2007) p. 294 1-12. “In sharp contrast to both the opening six and concluding nine verses of the preceding canto…”] [2: Same as above]
The use of the metaphor in line 3 of downward facing wings can be connected to what Dante is saying about the futility of man’s actions; we are born as lowly creatures but nevertheless could hold the ability to fly like angels, i.e. become as enlightened with heavenly light as Dante is experiencing. However, because human beings are too preoccupied with small and less important matters, “si dava a l’ozio”, they do not choose to pursue this path. Dante the character feels liberated now that he has ascended with Beatrice, “da tutte queste cose sciolto”.
In order to describe the twelve souls who are surrounding Dante in a circle and the dazzling light of their intellects, Dante the poet uses the metaphor of a candle on its sconce, “fermossi, come a candelier candelo”. This helps to create a visual image for the reader who can more clearly imagine the brilliance of these lights.
One of the lights begins to speak, as previously mentioned, that of Thomas Aquinas in line 16, who is described as a “lumera”. This is significant because in the Heaven of the Sun, the souls, as stated, are described using the metaphor of light. In contrast to this, the same metaphor is used previously in the Divine Comedy in Inferno IV in Limbo where light was also used as a metaphor of intellect. However, the wise souls in the Heaven of the Sun receive their light directly from God and this means that they are theologians and also philosophers. In the Middle Ages, the distinction between being a theologian and a philosopher was not as strict as it is today[footnoteRef:3]. Therefore, it was considered that Thomas Aquinas was both. Dante himself also uses arguments and reasoning techniques that come from both philosophy and theology, such as syllogising which consists of a logical argument and consequence which stems from a major and a minor premise when both are considered together. [3: (Gilson, 2019)]
In the extract, beginning on line 28 describes the “provedenza” which rules the world and how any creature created by God, meaning all human mortals, will always fail to fully understand this. We will see this demonstrated later on in the Paradiso when Dante struggles to express what he saw when he came face-to-face with God on lines 55-57 of canto XXXIII, “Da quince innanzi il mio veder fu maggio / che ‘l parlar mostra, ch’a tal vista cede, / e cede la memoria a tanto oltraggio.”. Robert Hollander describes this experience as “ineffable, not describable, and the vision cannot be remembered in any of its details … All that remains is the awareness of having had the experience.”[footnoteRef:4] [4: (Hollander, 2007) p. 924]
On line 35, the “due principi” that were “ordinò in suo favore” were the two Saints of Saint Francis and Saint Dominic who were chosen to act as guides for the Church and found the two Christian orders of the Franciscans and the Dominicans respectively. The fact that these two saints were chosen by God, by divine providence, is Dante the author’s way of introducing the main theme of their providential role and the fact that they could support and foster the Church as an institution.
This description of the two saints as guides can also be compared with the reference to the two wheels on the chariot of the Church, without which it could not grow and develop. This chariot is first referred to in the Purgatorio but it is not until the Paradiso that Dante really makes the meaning of this clear. In Canto XII, it is made clear that the Orders of St Francis and St Dominic are these two wheels and it is with knowledge and love respectively that the wheels help the chariot to move[footnoteRef:5], “in che la Santa Chiesa si difese / e vinse in campo la sua civil briga”[footnoteRef:6]. This can be connected to the spiritual unity of the Church and the theme of harmony between both orders, both working side by side towards the common goal of progress. [5: (Nichols, 2011) p. 140] [6: Paradiso, Canto XII, lines 107-108]
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The repetition of “l’un” in lines 37, 40 and 41 can be compared to the repetition of “l’uno e l’altro” in preceding cantos as Rachel Jacoff refers to, “The two groupings of sapienti in the circle of the Sun are one component of a series of “doublings” that informs these cantos. The sun’s double motion on its daily and its yearly path becomes the model for other pairs in equipoise, with the repetition of the phrase “l’uno e l’altro” underlining the theme of reciprocity”.
This theme and the structure, both lexical and thematic of Canto XI and the few cantos just before and after it in the Paradiso are described as the following also by Rachel Jacoff:
The intricately analogical construction of these cantos operates on several levels,
from the lexical to the thematic, with the parallel narratives of St. Francis
and St. Dominic also structured to conform to the pattern of equipoise. The
Dominican Thomas praises Francis who was “seraphic in ardor,” while the
Franciscan Bonaventure praises Dominic who was “cherubic in splendor.”
As mentioned, on line 37 St Francis is described as being “serafico in ardore” while St Dominic is “di cherubica luce uno splendore”. This is referring to the Seraphim, the highest order of angels in Heaven which are encountered at the end of the Paradiso, while St Dominic is compared to the Cherubim, the next order down of angelic beings who attend directly to God Himself. It is interesting that St Francis is compared to a higher order than that of St Dominic. While both are laudatory comparisons, Dante was closer in his own beliefs to the Franciscans and what would be the current Spirituals. This is due to their and Dante’s shared belief of wanting to restore the Church to its original purity, because of the corruption seen during the Middle Ages. We can see examples of this and Dante’s condemnation therein throughout the Divine Comedy, such as Pope Boniface VIII’s portrayal in the Inferno as being condemned for his sins and guilty of simony, particularly in Inferno XIX but also in other works from the same time period. For example, in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, in particular, The Pardoner’s Tale which features the hypocritical character of the Pardoner, who preaches against greed and avarice and yet he tricks and extorts the poor and sinners by the selling of fake relics without caring about the fate of the souls of those he has deceived[footnoteRef:7]. This is the kind of deception and corruption that existed in the religious climate of pre-Reformation and it is the type of behaviour that Dante and the Franciscans wanted to stamp out. [7: (Ginsberg, 1976)]
St Francis was also known as the champion of poverty throughout his life and Dante seems to greatly admire this. In fostering the return of the Church to its original spirit it would also include its original poverty, criticising the immense riches which had been acquired by the institution at this point through mostly corrupt means[footnoteRef:8]. [8: (Logan, 2013)]
In line 42, the single end that is referred to, “ad un fine fur l'opere sue” to which both saints, Francis, and Dominic work, underlines again the theme of harmony between the two respective orders who have the joint aim of fostering the development of the Church. As previously referenced, the reciprocal praise for the Dominicans coming from a Franciscan and vice versa, and this is partly due as well to the fact that the souls in this Sphere are enlightened, including Thomas Aquinas.
Lines 43 to 48 include a geographical description of where St Francis was born in Umbria, in Italy. In line 50, the rising of the sun on the world is described, employing the use of a metaphor for St Francis himself, “nacque al mondo un sole”. Some, including Robert Hollander, have even compared this new sun – or new son – to the metaphor of the birth of Christ, representing a new beginning for the Church, “[St Francis] was indeed often portrayed as a “second Christ” (see Auerbach), each takes on the role of Christ in husbanding the Church through her many tribulations both in his lifetime and thereafter, by instrument of the mendicant order that he, having founded, left behind him”[footnoteRef:9]. [9: (Hollander, 2007) p. 297 28-36. “This convoluted and difficult passage…”]
In line 52 to 54, finishing the extract, are significant because Dante the author refers to the usually prescribed birthplace of St Francis “Ascesi” or Assisi as it is known today as being insufficient, “ché direbbe corto”. Instead, Dante suggests that one should use “Orïente”. This is an extension of the metaphor of St Francis as a second Christ. The second sun or son begins to move and rises in the East like Christ rising to glory and to Heaven to lead humanity.
Hollander also describes this metaphor in a grammatical sense, in terms of verbs and participles. “Ascesi” as well as being the name for Assisi in the Middle Ages is also the Latin for “I have risen” which can clearly be connected to Christ but note that it is a past tense verb. The preference being given to “Orïente”, however, means that it can be translated as “rising” which, being in the present tense means that it is not confined to the past. “Francis, like Christ, is always rising, leading us Heavenward”[footnoteRef:10]. [10: (Hollander, 2007) p. 297 53-54. “Ascesi”]
To conclude, this extract is very significant within Canto XI because it introduces some of the main themes and points Dante wants to show to the reader, including that of returning the Church to its original purity and poverty, harmony between the Franciscans and the Dominicans and the roles of St Francis and St Dominic who were chosen by God to bring the Church forward through their work. The extract is also important in the Paradiso as a whole because Dante the author uses it as an opportunity to bring forth his own religious and political agenda and to push this message about the Church, in order to make the Divine Comedy a prophetic book and cause change. Furthermore, this point in the Paradiso represents a continuation of Dante’s journey to full enlightenment as he is journeying increasingly closer to the Empyrean where he will have a vision of God and the Holy Trinity.
Bibliography
Primary sources
- Alighieri, D., Hollander, R. and Hollander, J., 2007. Paradiso. New York: Anchor Books.
Secondary sources
- Gardner, E.G., 1913. Dante and the Mystics: A Study of the Mystical Aspect of the Divina Commedia and its Relations with Some of its Medieval Sources. JM Dent & sons Limited.
- Gilson, E., 2019. History of Christian philosophy in the Middle Ages. Catholic University of America Press.
- Ginsberg, W., 1976. Preaching and Avarice in the Pardoner's Tale. Mediaevalia, 2, pp.77-99.
- Hollander, R., 2001. Dante: A Life in Works. New Haven/London: Yale University Press.
- Jacoff, R. (2007). Introduction to Paradiso. In R. Jacoff (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Dante (Cambridge Companions to Literature, pp. 107-124). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CCOL0521844304.007 [accessed 5/5/20]
- Logan, F.D., 2013. A History of the Church in the Middle Ages. Routledge.
- Nichols, A., 2011. Lost in wonder: essays on liturgy and the arts. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
- Reynolds, B., 2006. Dante: the poet, the political thinker, the man. Counterpoint Press.
- Shaw, P., 2014. Reading Dante: From Here to Eternity. WW Norton & Company.
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