Dictionary of Psychology Preparing for the Exam

1. Metacognition » Metacognition is the ability to think about one's own thinking. It refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's understanding and performance. An example of metacognition would be an adult working on a difficult project at their job. They are aware of their own thought process and understand the task at hand. They plan out their work schedule, utilizing different techniques and strategies to help them better understand and complete the project, such as breaking it down into smaller tasks, prioritizing, and seeking help from colleagues. 2. (One card- 3 definitions) encoding, storage, retrieval » Encoding refers to the process of taking in information and transforming it into a form that can be stored in memory. » Storage refers to the process of holding onto the encoded information in memory. » Retrieval refers to the process of accessing the stored information and bringing it back into conscious awareness. 3. (draw it if you wish) Three Box/ Three Stage Processing Model » Sensory memory: This is the initial stage of processing where information is received through the senses and held in a temporary buffer. This stage is responsible for holding onto information long enough for it to be encoded and transferred to the next stage. » Short-term memory: This stage is also known as working memory, where the information is held for a short period of time and can be actively manipulated or rehearsed. It is limited in capacity and duration, usually for about 20-30 seconds. » Long-term memory: This is the final stage of processing where the information is permanently stored and can be retrieved at a later time. Long-term memory is not limited in capacity and can hold information for an extended period of time. 4. Sensory memory » You're walking down a busy street and you see a shop window with a red dress displayed. The image of the red dress is held briefly in your sensory memory, which allows you to process and encode the information. For example, you might encode the information by noting the color, the style, or the brand. If you don't pay attention to the dress, the image will fade away after a fraction of a second, but if you are more interested in it, you might hold the image in your memory for a little longer. 5. Short-term memory » A friend gives you their phone number and asks you to call them later. You repeat the number several times to yourself until you can dial it correctly. This is an example of how you are using your short-term memory to hold on to the phone number long enough to transfer it to your longterm memory or to write it down, but it will be forgotten if not rehearsed or transferred. » Short-term memory is limited in capacity, usually being able to hold around 7 items, plus or minus 2, and it's limited in duration, usually for about 20-30 seconds. That's why it's important to use techniques like repetition, chunking, or association to remember the phone number for a longer time period. 6. George Miller’s Magic number 7 +/- 2 » George Miller's Magic number 7 +/- 2 refers to the idea that the capacity of short-term memory is limited to around 7 items, plus or minus 2. » When someone is trying to remember a list of groceries, they might make a mental list of the items they need, such as milk, bread, eggs, cheese, apples, chicken, and salad. They may repeat the list to themselves several times, trying to keep all of the items in their short-term memory. Once they reach the store and start shopping, they might forget one or two items from the list because their short-term memory capacity is full. This is an example of how short-term memory is limited and how the number of items that can be held in short-term memory is around 7, plus or minus 2. 7. Long-term memory » An example could be when someone remembers a song or a poem that they learned in the past. They might be able to recall the lyrics or the rhyme scheme of the song or poem even years after they learned it. This is an example of how long-term memory can store information for a long period of time and retrieve it later. » Long-term memory is not limited in capacity and can store vast amounts of information and can retrieve it when needed. Long-term memory is also responsible for organizing the information to 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. make it accessible and useful, it can be divided into explicit and implicit memory, based on the nature of the information. Effortful Processing » Effortful processing refers to the active, deliberate, and conscious effort that is required to process and store information in long-term memory. A real-life example of effortful processing is when someone is studying for an exam. » An example could be when someone is trying to learn a new skill, like playing a musical instrument. They would have to practice regularly and put in effort to learn the fingerings, the timing, and the techniques, before they can play a song. This active effort to process and master the skill is an example of effortful processing. Automatic Processing » An example of automatic processing is driving a car. When a person first learns to drive, they have to actively think about every step of the process, such as braking, accelerating, and turning. However, with practice, these actions become automatic and the driver no longer has to consciously think about them. This allows the driver to focus on other tasks, such as navigating and monitoring traffic, while still being able to safely operate the vehicle. Episodic Memory » Episodic memory is the type of long-term memory that allows us to remember specific events or episodes from our past, such as personal experiences, people we've met, places we've been, and things we've done. » An example could be when someone remembers their first day of school or their first job interview. They would be able to recall the details of the events such as the location, the people they met, the feelings they had, what they wore, etc. These personal experiences are stored in Episodic memory and can be retrieved later. Semantic Memory » Semantic memory is the type of long-term memory that allows us to remember general knowledge and concepts, such as facts, meanings, concepts, and the rules of language. It is not related to a specific personal experience. » An example could be when someone knows how to ride a bike. They might not remember the first time they learned to ride a bike, but they can ride it now because they have stored the rules of riding a bike in their semantic memory. They know how to balance, how to steer, how to pedal, and how to brake, but they don't remember the specific episodes of when they learned it. Procedural Memory » An example of procedural memory is learning to ride a bike. At first, the person has to actively think about each step of the process, such as balancing, pedaling, and steering. However, with practice, these actions become automatic and the person no longer has to consciously think about them. They can ride the bike without actively thinking about the process, allowing them to focus on other tasks, such as avoiding obstacles or following a path. This ability to perform a complex task without conscious effort is an example of how procedural memory allows us to automate certain behaviors and skills. Explicit Memory (aka declarative) » Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, is the type of long-term memory that involves the conscious and intentional recollection of information. It is the memory that we can declare or describe, and it can be further divided into episodic and semantic memory. » An example of explicit memory is when someone is asked to recall the events of their last vacation. They might be able to describe where they went, what they did, who they were with, and how they felt. This conscious recollection of past events is an example of explicit episodic memory. Implicit Memory (aka nondeclarative) » An example of implicit memory, also known as nondeclarative memory, is riding a bike. After learning to ride a bike, a person may not be able to explicitly remember the process of learning, such as the specific instructions given or the different stages of learning, but they can still ride a bike. This ability to ride a bike without conscious effort or explicit knowledge of the process is an example of how implicit memory allows us to retain and utilize certain skills and behaviors without being aware of it. Another example would be, recognizing a familiar face even though you may not remember where you met them or knowing how to tie your shoe lace but not being able to explain the step-by-step process. 15. Levels of Processing Model (Deep or shallow) » The Levels of Processing Model is a theoretical model that proposes that the depth of processing that information receives affects the strength and longevity of the memory. It proposes that information that is processed semantically (i.e. meaning) is more likely to be remembered than information that is processed superficially (i.e. surface features). » An example of deep processing is when someone is studying for an exam, and they are actively trying to understand and make connections between the different concepts they are learning. They might relate the material to their own experiences, ask questions, and generate examples. This deep processing of the material will make it more likely to be remembered in the long-term. » On the other hand, an example of shallow processing is when someone is scanning through a text, only paying attention to the surface features such as the font, the layout or the color of the text. They might not be paying attention to the meaning of the text and they are not actively trying to understand the material. This shallow processing of the material will make it less likely to be remembered in the long-term. 16. Elaborative Rehearsal » Elaborative rehearsal is a type of active learning strategy that involves connecting new information to existing knowledge. » For example, a student might read their textbook, but then actively try to make connections between the information they just read and previous knowledge they already have. A student may also use mnemonics or create visual aids to remember the information. This process helps to actively engage with the material and make it more meaningful, making it more likely to be remembered in the long term. An example of elaborative rehearsal would be, a student studying for a history exam, making connections between the events they are reading about and current events to make it more relatable and memorable. 17. (Draw Graph) Ebbinghaus Retention Curve (aka forgetting curve) » The Ebbinghaus Retention Curve, also known as the forgetting curve, is a graphical representation of the decline of memory retention over time. It was first proposed by the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century, based on his own extensive memory research. » The curve shows that there is a rapid decline in memory retention immediately after learning, followed by a slower decline over time. The curve also indicates that the rate of forgetting slows down as time goes on. According to the curve, after about 24 hours, about 50% of the information is forgotten, after one week about 70% is forgotten, and after a month, about 90% is forgotten. » 18. Spacing Effect (Disributed v Massed practice) » The spacing effect refers to the idea that distributing study sessions over time is more effective than cramming all of the study sessions into a short period of time. » For example, a student who studies for an exam by reviewing material in small chunks over a period of weeks will likely perform better than a student who waits until the night before the exam to try to learn all of the material at once. This is because distributed practice allows for more time for the material to be processed and consolidated in long-term memory, while massed practice can lead to fatigue and information overload. 19. Serial Positioning Effect » The Serial Positioning Effect is the phenomenon where people tend to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more easily than those in the middle. This effect was first described by Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century, and it has been widely studied in the field of psychology. » An example of the serial positioning effect is when someone is asked to remember a list of items they were shown briefly, such as a grocery list. They might be able to recall the first few items and the last few items on the list, but have difficulty remembering the items in the middle of the list. This is an example of how the serial positioning effect can influence recall and memory. 20. Long-term Potentiation (LTP) » Long-term potentiation is a process by which the strength of a connection between neurons in the brain is increased, making it more likely for them to fire together in the future. This process is thought to be the neural basis of learning and memory, and it occurs when a neuron is repeatedly activated in a specific pattern. » For example, when a person learns a new skill, such as playing a musical instrument or a sport, the neurons that are responsible for coordinating the movement of the fingers or the body will be activated in a specific pattern. With repetition and practice, these neurons will fire together more frequently, and the connection between them will be strengthened. This process is thought to be responsible for the improvement in performance over time, as the skill becomes more automatic, and the person can perform it with less effort and more accuracy. 21. State Dependent Memory » State-dependent memory refers to the phenomenon where the recall of information is influenced by the individual's internal or external state at the time of encoding and retrieval. The internal state includes factors such as emotions, physiological states, and cognitive processes, while the external state includes factors such as the context, the environment, and the sensory cues. » A real-life example of state-dependent memory is when someone is studying for an exam while listening to music. They might find that they are able to recall the material better when they are listening to the same music while taking the exam. This is an example of how the internal state, in this case the music, can act as a cue to help retrieve the information. 22. Context Dependent Memory » Context-dependent memory refers to the idea that the recall of information is better when the context or environment in which the information was learned is the same as the context or environment in which it is retrieved. » For example, a student who studies for an exam in a quiet library will likely perform better on the exam if it is also taken in a quiet library, as opposed to a noisy coffee shop. This is because the context of the library creates an association between the information and the environment, so when the student is in the same environment again, it will trigger the recall of the information. Similarly, if a person learns a new skill while listening to a certain song, they might recall it better if they listen to the same song again while practicing the skill. 23. Mood Congruent Memory » Mood-congruent memory is the phenomenon where an individual's mood at the time of encoding and retrieval influences their ability to recall information that is consistent with their current mood. This means that positive moods tend to enhance the recall of positive information, while negative moods tend to enhance the recall of negative information. » An example of mood-congruent memory is when someone is feeling happy and they are asked to recall a list of words they were shown earlier. They might be more likely to recall positive words such as "sunshine" or "happiness" and less likely to recall negative words such as "sadness" or "pain". This is an example of how the individual's current mood, in this case a positive mood, can influence their ability to recall information that is consistent with their mood. 24. Proactive Interference » An example of proactive interference in psychology is trying to remember a new phone number while already having a similar phone number memorized. Proactive interference refers to the phenomenon where previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information. In this case, the previously memorized phone number "competes" with the new phone number for neural resources, making it more difficult to remember the new number. 25. Retroactive Interference » Retroactive interference refers to the phenomenon where new learning interferes with the recall of previously learned information. This means that the acquisition of new information makes it harder to recall the old information. » An example of retroactive interference is when someone is trying to learn two different languages at the same time. They might find that they are having difficulty remembering words and grammar rules in one language because the new information in the other language is interfering with their ability to recall the old information. This is an example of how new learning can interfere with the recall of previously learned information. 26. Misinformation effect » An example of the misinformation effect in psychology is eyewitness testimony. The misinformation effect refers to the phenomenon where people's memories can be influenced by post-event information. This can occur when a person's memory of an event is influenced by information they received after the event. For example, an eyewitness who is interviewed by the police about a crime may inadvertently incorporate information from the police officer's questions into their own memory of the event, leading to inaccurate or distorted memories. 27. Source Amnesia » Source amnesia is a phenomenon where an individual is unable to remember the source of a specific piece of information, despite being able to recall the information itself. This means that they can remember the fact or information, but they cannot remember where they learned it from. » An example of source amnesia is when someone is asked where they learned a specific piece of information, such as a historical fact, but they are unable to remember the source, such as the book or the teacher who taught them. This is an example of how the individual can recall the information, but not the source of where they learned it from. 28. Anterograde amnesia » Anterograde amnesia is a condition in which a person is unable to create new memories following a particular event, usually a brain injury. They can recall past memories, but they are unable to form new memories or retain new information. » For example, a person who suffers a head injury in a car accident might not be able to remember what happened immediately before or after the accident. They might also have difficulty forming new memories, such as remembering new people they meet or events that happen after the accident. They might also struggle to learn new information or skills and have trouble with tasks that require new learning, such as learning a new route to a location. 29. Retrograde amnesia » Retrograde amnesia is a type of memory loss where an individual is unable to recall events or information that occurred before a specific point in time. It is typically caused by head injury, stroke, infection, or degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's. » An example of retrograde amnesia is when someone has been in a car accident and suffers a head injury. They might be able to remember events that occurred after the accident, such as being in the hospital, but they are unable to recall events that occurred before the accident, such as their childhood or their daily routine. This is an example of how the injury has caused a loss of memory for events that occurred before the accident. 30. Cognition » Cognition refers to the mental processes and activities related to acquiring, processing, storing, and using information. Problem-solving is an example of a cognitive process that involves the use of various mental processes such as attention, perception, memory, reasoning, and decision-making to identify and solve a problem. » For example, a person who is trying to figure out how to fix a broken appliance might use their knowledge of how the appliance works, their perception of the problem, their memory of similar situations, their reasoning abilities to identify potential solutions, and their decision-making skills to choose the best solution. 31. Concept » A concept in psychology is a mental representation of a category or group of objects, ideas, or events that share common characteristics or properties. Concepts are used to organize and understand information, and they are the building blocks of our knowledge and understanding of the world. » 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. An example of a concept is the concept of "dog." This concept represents a group of animals that share certain characteristics such as four legs, a tail, and the ability to bark. It allows us to recognize and understand that a Labrador Retriever, a German Shepherd, and a Poodle are all different types of dogs, even though they have different physical characteristics. Prototype » Prototype refers to the idea that people tend to have a mental representation of what is considered the most typical or representative example of a category or concept. For example, when people think of the category "bird", they might have a mental representation of a robin as the prototype, as it is considered the most typical or representative bird. » An example would be if a person is asked to think of a fruit, they might think of an apple as it is considered the most typical fruit, or if a person is asked to think of a flower, they might think of a rose as it is considered the most typical flower. Algorithm » An algorithm in psychology refers to a set of step-by-step procedures or rules that are followed to solve a problem or make a decision. Algorithms are used to simplify complex tasks and make them more efficient and consistent. » An example of an algorithm in psychology is the algorithm used to diagnose a mental disorder. A clinician might use a diagnostic manual, such as the Diagn and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which provides a set of criteria and symptoms for different mental disorders. The clinician would then follow a set of procedures, such as conducting an interview, administering a questionnaire, or performing a physical examination, to gather information about the patient. Based on the patient's symptoms and the criteria in the manual, the clinician would then use an algorithm to determine the most likely diagnosis. Heuristic » A heuristic in psychology is a mental shortcut or a rule of thumb that people use to make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently. Heuristics are based on past experiences and are used to simplify complex tasks and make them more manageable. » An example of a heuristic in psychology is the availability heuristic. This heuristic refers to the tendency to rely on information that is easily available in memory when making judgments and decisions. For example, if someone is asked to estimate the probability of an event occurring, they might base their estimate on the number of examples of that event that come to mind quickly. If someone has heard several news stories about shark attacks, they might overestimate the likelihood of being attacked by a shark. Confirmation bias » Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to seek out, interpret, and favor information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs, while ignoring or discounting information that contradicts them. It's a phenomenon that affects the way people process information, make decisions and form opinions. » An example of confirmation bias is when someone is reading about a political candidate. They may only read news articles or watch videos that align with their own political beliefs and ignore or discount information that contradicts their beliefs. They might be more likely to believe positive stories about the candidate they support, and to be skeptical of negative stories about that candidate. Fixation » Fixation in psychology refers to a cognitive state where an individual becomes stuck or focused on a specific idea, strategy, or solution, making it difficult to consider alternative possibilities or to adapt to new information. Fixation can occur in different areas of cognition such as problemsolving, decision making, and creativity. » An example of fixation in psychology is when someone is trying to solve a math problem, but they are stuck on a specific strategy that they learned in school and they can't seem to find a different solution. Even though they have been trying different methods, they keep coming back to the same strategy, and they can't seem to find a different solution. This is an example of how fixation can prevent an individual from finding different solutions to a problem. Mental set » A mental set in psychology refers to a cognitive state where an individual becomes habituated to a specific approach, strategy or way of thinking, making it difficult to consider alternative possibilities or to adapt to new information. A mental set can be thought of as a cognitive bias 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. or cognitive rigidity, where the person becomes fixated on a specific way of thinking, and it's difficult to change or adapt to new information. » An example of a mental set in psychology is when someone is trying to assemble a piece of furniture from Ikea, but they keep trying to fit the pieces together in the same way, even though the instructions say to do it differently. They might find that the pieces aren't fitting together properly, and they are getting frustrated. This is an example of how a mental set can prevent an individual from seeing new solutions to a problem. Functional Fixedness » Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its usual function, and to have difficulty thinking of new or alternative uses for it. This mental block can make it difficult for an individual to solve problems or come up with creative ideas. » An example of functional fixedness in psychology is when someone is trying to open a bottle of wine, but they can't find a corkscrew. They might look for one for a while, but eventually give up, because they are unable to think of alternative ways to open the bottle, such as using a screwdriver or a shoe. This is an example of how functional fixedness can prevent an individual from seeing new solutions to a problem. Representativeness Heuristic » The representativeness heuristic is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to classify an object or a person based on their similarity to a prototype or a stereotype, rather than evaluating the characteristics of the individual. This can lead to errors in judgment and decision making as it can cause people to ignore relevant information and base their judgments on superficial similarities. » An example of the representativeness heuristic in psychology is when someone is trying to guess a person's profession based on their appearance. For example, if they see a person wearing a suit, they might assume that they are a businessman, even though they might be a lawyer or an artist. This is an example of how the representativeness heuristic can lead to an error in judgment, and it can cause people to ignore relevant information about the person's qualifications or background. Availability Heuristic » The availability heuristic is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to rely on information that is easily available in memory when making judgments and decisions. This can lead to errors in judgment, as people tend to overestimate the likelihood of events that are easily brought to mind and ignore relevant information that is less easily available. » An example of the availability heuristic in psychology is when someone is trying to estimate the likelihood of a natural disaster. If they have recently seen news coverage of a natural disaster, they might overestimate the likelihood of it happening again in the near future. This is an example of how the availability heuristic can lead to an error in judgment, as it causes people to rely on information that is easily available in memory, rather than considering relevant statistics and probabilities. Overconfidence » Overconfidence is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to overestimate one's own abilities, knowledge, or the accuracy of predictions. It can lead to errors in judgment, decision making, and problem solving, as people who are overconfident may make decisions based on their own perceived abilities, rather than considering the actual evidence or probability of success. » An example of overconfidence in psychology is when someone is playing a game of poker and they have a strong hand, but they continue to raise the stakes and make large bets, even though the odds are against them. This is an example of how overconfidence can lead to errors in judgment, as the person is overestimating their own abilities and the strength of their hand, rather than considering the odds of winning. Belief Bias » Belief bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency for an individual's preexisting beliefs to influence their reasoning and evaluation of arguments. It occurs when people evaluate the logical strength of an argument based on whether or not they agree with its conclusion, rather than evaluating the evidence and reasoning presented in the argument itself. » An example of belief bias in psychology is when someone is evaluating a political argument. If 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. they already have a strong belief in a certain political ideology, they may be more likely to accept arguments that align with their beliefs and reject arguments that contradict their beliefs, even if the reasoning and evidence presented in both arguments are equally valid. This is an example of how belief bias can lead to a distorted view of reality, and make it difficult for an individual to consider alternative perspectives. Belief Perseverance » Belief perseverance is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency for an individual to persist in their beliefs despite new evidence or information that contradicts them. This can be thought of as a form of cognitive dissonance, where people tend to cling to their beliefs and ignore or rationalize away new information that contradicts them. » An example of belief perseverance in psychology is when someone is presented with new scientific evidence that contradicts their long-held belief about a certain topic, such as climate change. Despite the overwhelming evidence, they might continue to deny or reject the evidence, because it contradicts their belief that human activities are not responsible for climate change. This is an example of how belief perseverance can lead to a distorted view of reality and make it difficult for an individual to consider alternative perspectives. Framing » An example of framing in psychology is how the way a problem or decision is presented can influence people's perceptions and choices. For example, in a study by Kahneman and Tversky, participants were presented with a scenario where a certain disease would affect 600 people. When the problem was framed as "200 people will be saved," the majority of participants chose option A. However, when the problem was framed as "400 people will die," the majority chose option B. Despite the fact that the options were exactly the same, the way the problem was framed had a significant impact on people's choices. This is an example of how framing can affect people's decisions and perceptions, and how the same information can be presented in different ways to elicit different responses. Phoneme » Phonemes are the basic units of sound that make up words in a language. For example, in the English language, the word "cat" is made up of three phonemes: /k/, /æ/, and /t/. » An example of how phonemes are important in language is when a child is learning to speak. Children learn to distinguish between different speech sounds and associate them with specific letters or spellings. For example, a child may learn that the sound /m/ is associated with the letter "m" and the word "mom." As the child becomes more proficient at identifying and producing phonemes, they are able to form words, phrases and sentences. Morpheme » Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language, and they can be either a root word or a word affix (prefix, suffix, infix). » For example, in the English language, the word "unhappy" is made up of two morphemes: "un-" (prefix) and "happy" (root word). The prefix "un-" changes the meaning of the root word "happy" to its opposite, creating the word "unhappy" which means not happy. Similarly, the word "walked" is made up of two morphemes: "walk" (root word) and "-ed" (suffix) indicating past tense. Semantics » Semantics is the study of meaning in language, and it includes how words and phrases are related to each other and how they are used in context. » For example, in a conversation between two people, one person might use the word "ball" and the other person might interpret it as a round object used for playing games, while the speaker might be referring to a different object entirely, like a "ball" of yarn. This illustrates how the same word can have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used, and how people use semantics to understand and interpret language. Syntax » Syntax is the study of the rules and principles that govern the formation of sentences in a language, including word order, verb tense, and punctuation. » For example, in a conversation, when a person uses a sentence that doesn't follow the grammatical rules of the language, it can be difficult for the listener to understand the intended message. For instance, if someone says "Me go store" instead of "I am going to the store", it can be confusing for the listener. This illustrates how syntax plays a crucial role in effective communication by helping people understand the structure and meaning of sentences. 49. (One card 2 definitions) Deep Structure vs Surface Structure of Sentences » The deep structure of a sentence refers to the underlying meaning or the intended message that the speaker is trying to convey. The surface structure of a sentence, on the other hand, refers to the grammatically correct way in which the sentence is constructed and expressed. 50. Telegraphic Speech » Telegraphic speech is a stage of language development in which children use only the most important words in a sentence, and omit less important words such as articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. » EXTRA: This is because children are still in the process of learning the grammar rules and vocabulary of their language, and they have not yet developed the ability to express themselves fully and accurately. » For example, a young child might say "Me want cookie" instead of "I want a cookie" or "I would like a cookie". This illustrates how the child is focusing on conveying the main message (wanting a cookie) and omitting the less important words (articles, pronouns, and conjunctions) that would make it a complete sentence. 51. Overgeneralization (aka Overregularization) » Overgeneralization occurs when a child applies a rule they have learned to words or situations that are exceptions to that rule. » EXTRA: For example, a child may learn that regular verbs in English are formed by adding "-ed" to the base form of the verb, and then may incorrectly use this rule to form the past tense of irregular verbs. This is an example of overgeneralization. » For example, a child might say "I goed to the store" instead of "I went to the store" or "I runned to the store" instead of "I ran to the store". This illustrates how the child is applying the rule they have learned for regular verbs, but the verbs "to go" and "to run" are irregular verbs and the past tense does not follow the -ed rule. 52. Behaviorist View of Language Acquisition » According to the behaviorist perspective, language is learned through a process of trial and error, where children are reinforced for using language correctly and are corrected when they make errors. » For example, a child might say "Me want cookie" instead of "I want a cookie". The parent might respond by saying "I want a cookie" and giving the child a cookie. The child will learn that using the phrase "I want a cookie" will lead to receiving a cookie. This illustrates how the child learns the correct language through reinforcement, where they receive a reward for using the correct phrase. 53. Noam Chomsky's Cognitive View of Language Acquisition » According to Chomsky, children have an innate ability, or a "language acquisition device" (LAD), that allows them to learn and acquire language in a relatively effortless and rapid manner. This ability is thought to be specific to language and is not present in other forms of learning. » For example, a child may learn to say "mommy" or "daddy" without any explicit instruction or reinforcement. The child may not have been taught the meaning of these words or the context in which they should be used, yet they are able to use them appropriately in different situations. This illustrates how the child is able to learn and acquire language through an innate ability, as proposed by Chomsky's cognitive view of language acquisition. 54. Linguistic determinism (aka Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis) » Whorf's Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, in psychology, is the way that the language we speak shapes the way we think and perceive the world around us. According to this theory, the language we use determines the way we think and the concepts that we can understand. » For example, in some cultures, there is no word for the color blue, and as a result, people in that culture may not be able to perceive or differentiate between shades of blue. This illustrates how the language we use shapes the way we think and perceive the world around us, as proposed by Whorf's Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis. 55. (One card 2 definitions) Convergent vs Divergent thinking » Convergent thinking and divergent thinking are two different ways of approaching problemsolving and decision-making. » Convergent thinking is a problem-solving approach that involves narrowing down options to arrive at a single, correct solution. This approach typically involves analyzing information, » identifying patterns, and evaluating logical possibilities. It is often used in situations where a clear answer or solution is desired, such as in mathematical or scientific problems. Divergent thinking, on the other hand, is a problem-solving approach that involves generating multiple ideas or possibilities. This approach typically involves brainstorming, free association, and the exploration of multiple options. It is often used in situations where multiple solutions are possible, such as in creative or open-ended problems. Practice Test: (Multiple Choice) Metacognition: ● The ability to think about one's own thinking ● The processes used to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's understanding and performance ● Being aware of one's own cognitive processes, knowing when and how to use different strategies for learning and problem-solving, and being able to reflect on and evaluate one's own performance Encoding: ● The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory ● The first step in the process of remembering something Storage: ● The process of keeping information in the memory ● The second step in the process of remembering something Retrieval: ● The process of accessing information stored in memory ● The third step in the process of remembering something Three Box/Three Stage Processing Model: ● A model that explains the process of memory, consisting of three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval ● Each stage is represented by a box, with arrows connecting them to show the flow of information Sensory Memory: ● The memory system that holds information in its original sensory form for a brief period of time ● Holds information from the senses such as sight, sound, touch, etc. Short-term Memory: ● The memory system that holds a small amount of information for a brief period of time ● Also known as working memory George Miller's Magic number 7 +/- 2: ● The idea that the capacity of short-term memory is limited to around 7 (plus or minus 2) items Long-term Memory: ● The memory system that can hold a large amount of information for a long period of time Effortful Processing: ● The process of actively trying to remember information ● Involves using mnemonic devices, rehearsal, and other techniques Automatic Processing: ● The process of unconsciously and effortlessly encoding information ● Can occur through repetition or familiarity Episodic Memory: ● Memory for specific events or experiences ● Can include the time, place, and other details of the event Semantic Memory: ● Memory for general knowledge and concepts ● Includes facts, meanings, and concepts Procedural Memory: ● Memory for how to perform tasks or skills ● Includes things like riding a bike or typing Explicit Memory (aka declarative): ● Memory that can be deliberately retrieved and verbalized ● Includes episodic and semantic memory Implicit Memory (aka nondeclarative): ● Memory that is unconscious and cannot be deliberately retrieved ● Includes procedural memory Levels of Processing Model (Deep or shallow): ● A model that explains how the depth of processing affects memory ● Deep processing, such as understanding the meaning of information, leads to better retention than shallow processing, such as just seeing or hearing the information Elaborative Rehearsal: ● A technique for improving memory by actively making connections between new information and existing knowledge ● Can include creating mental images, relating new information to personal experiences, or creating mnemonic devices Ebbinghaus Retention Curve (aka forgetting curve): ● A graph that shows how quickly information is forgotten over time ● Shows that forgetting occurs rapidly at first, then levels off Spacing Effect (Distributed vs Massed practice): ● The idea that spacing out studying or practice leads to better retention than cramming ● Distributed practice, or spreading out practice over time, is more effective than massed practice, or doing a lot of practice in a short period of time Serial Positioning Effect: ● The tendency for people to recall