Reformation And Northern Renaissance

Reformation Renaissance in the North was marked by movements for religious change the Protestant Reformation engaged humanist critics of the Roman Catholic Church but the mood for four also permeated the lives of individual Christians now members of a broadening and increasingly wealthy middle Class A moralizing spirit motivated landmark works in art literature and music sometimes ominous sometimes satirical such works urged the revival of conscience for new religious faith and heightened attention to the spiritual life of the community the hallmark of the northern renaissance was the observation of the human being immortalized in painted portraits but also depicted in literature as a creature whose humanity used to base by folly and like Shakespeare's hamlet burdened by moral conflict. By the late 15th century the Italian passion for classical humanism had spread to the urban centers of the Netherlands and Germany as well as to the burgeoning nation states of England and France while the North absorbed the secular spirit of the Italian renaissance the primary focus of the northern renaissance would be religious its twin names were renewal and reform for two centuries critics throughout Europe had attacked the wealth worldliness and unchecked corruption of the Church of Rome by the early 15th century anti clericalism that is opposition to the influence of the church in worldly affairs especially politics became closely linked to lay by the revival of devotional practice among ordinary Christians in the Netherlands these sentiments generated the movement known as the devotio moderna modern devotion lay brothers and sisters of the common life as they were called organized houses in which they have studied and taught scripture living in the manner of Christian monks and nuns by taking no monastic vows these lay Christians cultivated the devotional lifestyle that fulfilled the ideals of the apostles and the church fathers they followed the mandate of Thomas á Kempis 1 himself a brother of the common life and author of the imitatio Christi imitation of Christ, put the life of Jesus into daily practice they simply written devotional manual emphasize direct communion with God through the practice of humility compassion and self denunciation after the Bible the imitatio Christi was the most frequently published book in the Christian West until well into modern times. Christian Humanism Although northern humanists like their Italian renaissance counterparts encouraged learning in Greek and Latin they were more concerned with the study and translation of early Christian manuscripts then with the classical and largely secular attacks they preoccupied the Italian humanist this critical reappraisal of religious tax is known as Christian humanism Christian humanist study the Bible in the writings of the church fathers with the same intellectual fervor that the Italian humanists brought to their examination of Plato and Cicero efforts of these northern scholars gave rise to the rebirth or renaissance that focused on the late classical world and specifically on the revival of church life and doctrine as gleaned from early Christian literature the northern renaissance put Christian humanism at the service of evangelical Christianity this movement would feed directly into the Protestant Reformation the leading Christian humanist of the 16th century often called the Prince of humanists was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam schooled among the brothers of the common life and learned in Latin Greek and Hebrew Erasmus was a superb scholar and prolific writer his satires are discussed later in this chapter the first humanist to make extensive use of the printing press he wants dareda famous publisher to print his words as fast as he could write them Erasmus was a fervent neoclassic IST he argued that almost everything worth knowing was set forth in Greek and Latin he was also a devout Christian who advocated a return to the basic teachings of Jesus he criticized the church and all Christians whose faith had been jaded by slavish adherence to doctrine in ritual using four different Greek manuscripts of the gospels he produced a critical edition of the New Testament they corrected the mistranslations in Jerome's 4th century Latin edition Erasmus New Testament became the source of most 16th century German and English vernacular translations of this central text of Christian humanism. Luther and the Protestant Reformation During the 16th century papal extravagance and immorality reached new Heights and shared reform became an urgent public issue in the territories of Germany loosely united under the leadership of the holy Roman emperor Charles the 5th the voices of protest were more strident than anywhere else in Europe across Germany the sale of indulgences see page 180 for the benefit of the Church of Rome specifically for the rebuilding of Saint Peters basilica provoked harsh criticism especially by those who saw the luxuries of the papacy as a betrayal of Apostolic ideals as with most movements of religious reform it fell to one extraordinary individual to galvanize popular sentiment in 1505 Martin Luther abandoned his legal studies at the University of earth or to become an augustinian monk thereafter as a doctor of theology at the University of Wittenberg he spoke out against the excesses of the church is inflammatory sermons and essays offered medical remedies to what he called the misery and wretchedness of Christendom. In 1521 Martin Luther was summoned to the city of Worms in order to appear before the DietThe German parliamentary council. Charged with heresy, but refuse to recant. Luther was convinced of the inherent sinfulness of humankind but he took issue with the traditional medieval view as promulgated for instance in every man that Salvation was earned through the performance of good works and grace mediated by the church and its priesthood inspired by the words of Saint Paul “the just shall live by faith” Romans 117. Luther maintained that Salvation was achieved only by faith in the validity of Christ sacrificed human beings were saved by the unearned gift of God's grace not by their good works on earth purchasing indulgences venerating relics making pilgrimages and seeking intercession of the Saints were useless justified by faith alone Christians assume full responsibility for their own actions and intentions In pointed criticism of the sale of indulgences Luther posted on the door of the cathedral list of Ninety-five propositions for theological dispute the ninety-five theses which took the confrontational tone of the sample printed below were put to press and circulated throughout Europe there did not wish to destroy Catholicism but rather to reform it his criticism of the institutional church was accompanied by his assault on church doctrine for instance because he found justification in scripture for only two of the sacraments dispensed by the Catholic Church baptism and Holy Communion he rejected the other five confirmation pens extreme unction holy orders and matrimony he attacked monasticism in clerical celibacy but his boldest challenge to the old medieval order was his unwillingness to accept the Pope as the ultimate source of religious authority he denied that the Pope was the spiritual heir to the Apostle Peter and claimed that the head of the church like any other human being was subject to error and correction Christians argued Luther were collectively a priesthood of believers consecrated as priest by baptism they needed no intermediaries between themselves and God the ultimate source of authority in matters of Nathan doctrine held Luther was scripture as interpreted by the individual Christian to encourage the reading of the Bible among his followers Luther translated the old and New Testament into German luther's assertions were revolutionary because they defied both church doctrine and the authority of the Church of Rome in 1520 Pope Leo X issued an edict excommunicating the outspoken reformer. The spread of Protestantism Luther's protests constituted an open revolt against the institution that for centuries had covered the lives of western Christians and fed revolt was broadcast by the printing press. Perfected in Mainz in 1450, the printing press was essential to the success of the Reformation between 1518 and 1520 some 300,000 printed copies of luther's Protestant tracts, sermons, and letters circulated throughout Europe within three months of its publication in 1522 the entire edition of luther's German Bible had sold out print technology proved to be the single most important factor in bringing the words of both performers and humanists to the attention of those who could read not only provide a cheap and ready access to the Bible but also in advanced the growing interest in vernacular literature which in turn enhance education national pride and the exercise of individual conscience. Calvin and Calvinism All of Europe was affected by luther's break with the church the Lutheran insistence that enlightened Christians could arrive at truth by way of scripture led reformers everywhere to interpret the Bible for themselves the result was the birth of many new Protestant sects each based on his own interpretation of scripture the most notable of these acts was launched by John Calvin a French theologian trained as a humanist in the lawyer Calvin placed great emphasis on God's omnipotence :the doctrine of predestination” was the logical consequence with calvin's view of God as all powerful and all knowing for as such God must know who will be saved and who will be damned eternally further if Christians are pre destined from birth for either Salvation or damnation good works are irrelevant since one cannot know who is elected and who damned Christians must live as if they are among the elect hard work in moral conduct must complement the unflagging glorification of God Calvin set forth these ideas in a legalistic instrument entitled the institutes of the Christian religion which became the most widely read theological work of its time. Forced to leave Catholic France, Calvin settled in Geneva, Switzerland where he set up a government in which elected officials using the Bible as the Supreme law ruled the community there under strict civic authority gene bans were prohibited from dancing drinking swearing gambling and all forms of public display while one status was known only by God calvinist might manifest that they were among the elect by their moral rectitude and their hard work on earth among calvinists wealth was taken to be a sign of God's favor and that work ethic was held in high esteem. after calvin's death Calvinism would have a far reaching influence in such places as England Scotland and America . Ideas and Issues Calvin predestination “by predestination we mean the eternal decree of God by which he determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every man all are not created on equal terms but some are preordained to eternal life others to eternal damnation and accordingly as each has been created for one or other of these ends we say that he has been pre destined to life or to death we say then that scripture clearly proves this much that God by his eternal and immutable counsel determined once for all those whom it was his pleasure one day to admit to Salvation and those whom on the other hand it was his pleasure to doomed to destruction we maintain that this council as regards the elect is founded on his free mercy without any respect to human worth, while those who may be doomed to destruction are excluded from access to life by adjusting blameless but at the same time incomprehensible judgment…” (from john calvin institutes of the christian religion.) Anabaptism King influence in such places as England Scotland and America anabaptism in your eyes are the radical wing of the Protestant movement emerged the anabaptists (given his name by those who opposed their practice of “rebaptizing” adults Christian)rejected all seven of the sacraments (including infant baptism) as the visible sign of God’s grace. Placing total emphasis on Christian conscience and voluntary acceptance of Jesus as the Christ the anabaptist called for the abolition of the mass and the complete separation of church and state holding individual responsibility and personal Liberty is fundamental ideals they were among the first westerners to offer religious sanction for political disobedience many anabaptist reformers met death at the hands of local governments males were burned at the stake and females were usually drowned English offshoots of the anabaptists- the Baptists and Quakers- would come to follow in about his precepts including the rejection of religious ritual (and imagery) and a fundamentalist approach to scripture. The Anglican Church In England the tudor monarch Henry VIII the eighth broke with the Roman Catholic Church and established a church under his own leadership political expediency colored that King's motives Henry was determined to leave England with a male heir but when 18 years of marriage to the Spanish Catholic Catherine of Aragon produced only your daughter he attempted to annul the marriage and take a new life the Pope refused prompting the King formally a staunch supporter of the Catholic Church to break with Rome in 1526 Henry declared himself head of the church in England his actions led to years of dispute and hostility between Roman Catholics and Anglicans members of the new English church by the mid 16th century the consequences of luther's protests were evident the religious unity of western christendom was shattered forever social and political upheaval had become the order of the day. Religious Persecution and Witch-Hunts for well over 200 years following the Protestant Reformation religious persecution and religious warfare were commonplace Catholics persecuted Protestants, Protestants persecuted Catholics and the Protestant sects maligned one another religious fanaticism transformed many Christians into cause who perceive the faith as a contest between God and savings Luther Calvin and many other learning people regarded season as a failure to be reckoned with daily Luther is said to have thrown in inkpot at the devil for disturbing his work. indeed the witch hunts that invested Europe (and especially Germany) during the 16th century were fueled by the popular belief that the devil was actively involved in human affairs. belief in witches dates back to humankind's earliest societies however the practice of persecuting witches did not begin until the late 14th century. the first massive persecutions occurred at the end of the 15th century and reached their peak approximately 100 years later. two theologians published the Malleus Maleficarum (witches’ hammer) an encyclopedia that described the nature of which is there collusion with the devil, and the ways by which they were to be recognized and punished since women traditionally regarded as inherently susceptible to the Devils temptations, they became the primary victims of this mass hysteria. Womenespecially single, old, and eccentric women constituted 4/5 of the witches executed between the 15th and early 17th centuries among northern European artists, witches, and witchcraft became favored subjects. the witchcraft craze of this period dramatizes the prevailing gap between Christian humanism and rationalism on the one hand and barbarism in superstition on the other. 16TH Century Literature Erasmus Torture of the 16th century was marked by heightened individualism and a progressive inclination to clear away the last remnants of medieval orthodoxy it was in many ways the literature of protest and reform and one whose dominant themes reflect the tension between medieval and modern ideas European writers were especially concerned with the discrepancies between the Noble ideals of classical humanism and the ignoble reality of human behavior religious rivalry and the horrors of war witch hunts and religious persecution all seemed to contradict the optimistic view that the Renaissance had inaugurated a more enlightened phase of human self consciousness it is not surprising then that satire the literary genre that points up the contradictions between real and ideal situations see page 76 was especially popular during the 16th century by means of satire northern renaissance writers held up prevailing abuse is to ridicule about him climbed the need for reform. Desiderius Erasmus, whom we met earlier in this chapter won the respective scholars throughout Europe for his learn letters and treatises however his single most popular work was the praise of folly a satiric oration attacking the wide variety of human foibles including greed intellectual pomposity and pride that praise of folly went through more than two dozen editions in Erasmus’ lifetime it influenced many other humanists including his lifelong friend and colleague Thomas More see to whom it was dedicated (in Latin, moria means folly) the following excerpt offers an idea of Erasmus Kingwood as applied to a typical northern renaissance theme the vast Gulf between human fallibility and human perfectibility the excerpt opens with the image of the world's a stage a favorite metaphor in 16th century painters and poets not the least of home as william shakespeare folly the allegorical figure who in Shakespeare folly the allegorical figure who was the speaker in the piece compares life to a comedy in which the players assume various roles in the course of the drama she observes one may come to play the parts of both servant and King the lecturer then describes each of a number of roles or disciplines such as medicine law and so on in terms of its affinity with folly Erasmus most here in words or reserved for theologians and church dignitaries but his insights exposed more generally (and timelessly) the frailties of all human beings: now what else is the whole life of mortals sort of comedy in which the various actors disguised by various costumes and masks walk on and play each one his part until the manager waves them off the stage Moreover this manager frequently gets the same actor go back in a different costume so that new has relatedly played the King in scarlet now acts the flunky in past clothes thus all things are presented by shadows yet displays put on no other way… More In England Erasmus friend the scholar and statesman Sir Thomas served as chancellor to King Henry the eighth at the time of Henry's break with the Catholic Church like Erasmus, More was a Christian humanist and a man of conscience. He denounced the modern evils of acquisitive capitalism and religious fanaticism and champion religious tolerance in Christian cherry as explained in A First Look is refusal to support the King's head of the Anglican church led to his execution. More’s Utopia (the Greek word meaning both no place and a good place) is a classic political satire on European statecraft in society the first literary description of an ideal state since plato's Republic it was inspired in part by accounts of wonders lands reported by sailors returning from that new world across the Atlantic. Morris imaginary island discovered by a fictional Explorer narrator is a socialistic state in which goods and property are shared Warren personal vanity are held in contempt learning is available to all citizens except slaves and freedom of religion is absolute moral which more like Calvin regarded as essential to moral and community interstellar society full responsibility for the preservation of social justice in this Commonwealth natural reason Netherlands and scoring for material wealth ensure peace and social harmony mores utopians have little use for precious metals jewels and that trifles that drive men to warm here more draws the ironic contrast between the ideal community and his own Christian Commonwealth that is while More’s Utopians are not Christian they are guided by the Christian principles of charity and humility that More found wanting among the English. Freedom of religion. Cervantes The Spaniard Miguel de Cervantes is a towering figure in 16th century literature, a writer whose landmark novel Don Quixote was translated from Spanish into a more languages than any work other than the Hebrew Bible. Like More, Cervantes treated human failings in a satirical manner. but unlike More (and Erasmus) Cervantez wrote in the vernacular the language of everyday speech servantez Don Quixote takes the form of a picaresque novel, a genre prose fiction that differs from the Japanese models of the Middle Ages by recounting the comic misadventures of a roguish figure who lives by his wits. Picaresque was a form of living entertainment in 16th century spain. Cervantes’ hero, the 50 year old impoverished nobleman Alonzo Quixado, escapes the hypocrisy of post-chivalric Spanish society by immersing himself in the literature of the medieval past. Assuming the title Don quijote de la mantia or chivalrous Knight he sets out to defend the outmoded ideals glorified in medieval books of chivalry and romance servantez may have conceived this theme when he himself fought in the battle of Lepanto against the Ottoman Turks seeking to write all social and political wrongs the deluded Don pursues a series of heroic misadventures including an encounter with a hostile army actually a flock of sheep and an armed attack on a horde of Giants in actuality windmills Cervantez offers up the exploits of those would be night and his faithful sidekick sancho panza as a tragicomedy in effect both humorous and poignant when his grand illusions are ultimately exposed the disillusioned hero laments “this world is nothing but schemes and plots all working at cross purposes” The following excerpt which recounts the dons illusory combat with 30 wild giants captures the satiric brilliance of Cervantes’ prose it is also the English expression tilting at windmills which describes fighting futile battles with imaginary enemies. Montaigne The French humanist Michel de Montaigne was neither a satirist nor reformer, but an educate aristrocrat who believed in the paramount importance of cultivating good judgment. trained in Latin, Montaigne was one of the leading proponents of classical learning in renaissance France. He earned universal acclaim as the father of the personal essay, a short piece of expository prose that examines the single subject or idea. the essay- the word comes from the French essayer (to try)- is a vehicle for probing or “trying out” ideas. indeed Montaigne regarded his 94 venacular French essays as studies an autobiographical reflection in them as he confessed he portrayed himself montains acids constitute the literary high watermark of the French renaissance an expression of reasoned inquiry into human values they addressed such universal subjects as virtue friendship old age idleness and education they defend their learning method they poses questions instead of providing answers in his essay on education Montaigne criticizes teachers who pour information into their students’ ears (“as though they were pouring water into a funnel”) then demand that students repeat what is taught rather than exercise original thought Montaigne balances his own opinions against those of classical Latin writers whom he quotes freely he advances wide range of fundamentally humanistic ideas for instance that contradiction as a characteristic human trait that self examination is the essence of true education and that skepticism an open mind in this are sound alternatives to dogmatic opinion and in an age when Europeans first encountered the customs and beliefs of non Christian populations in Africa and the Americas a forward looking Montaigne question the superiority of anyone culture over another. Shakespeare No assessment of the northern renaissance would be complete without some consideration of the literary giant of the age William Shakespeare a poet of unparalleled genius Shakespeare emerged during the Golden age of England under the rule of Elizabeth I. he produced 37 plays comedies tragedies romances and histories as well as 154 sonnets and other poems. these works generally considered to be the greatest examples of English literature have exercised an enormous influence on the evolution of the English language and the development of the western literary tradition. Little is known about Shakespeare's early life and formal education he grew up in Stratford upon Avon in the English Midlands, married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children and moved to London sometime before 1585. in London he formed in acting company the Lord chamberlain's company (also called the Kings men) in which he was shareholder actor and playwright. like 15th century Florence 16th century London and especially the Queens court supported or Galaxy of artists, musicians, and writers who enjoyed a mutually stimulating interchange of ideas. Shakespeare's Theatre company performed at the court of Elizabeth I and While Shakespeare is best known for his plays he also wrote some of the most beautiful sonnets ever produced in the English language. Indebted to Petrarch Shakespeare nevertheless devised most of his own sonnets in a form that would come to be called the English sonnet quatrains (four line stanzas) with alternate rhymes followed by a concluding couplet (two successive lines of verse with similar end rhymes) Shakespeare's sonnets employ- and occasionally mock- such traditional Petrarch themes as blind devotion the value of friendship and loves enslaving power some like sonnet 18 written in 1609. reflect the typically renaissance and classical concern for immortality achieved through art and love. In this sonnet Shakespeare addresses his lover by way of an extended metaphor like the summer day his beloved will fade and die but explains the poet she will remain eternally and through the sonnet for so long as the poem survives so will the object of its inspiration remain alive. The Shakespearean Stage Renaissance England’s landmark contribution to the humanistic tradition was reborn in an era of high confidence. in 1588 the English Navy defeated a Spanish fleet of 130 ships known as the “invincible Armada” this event of victory as well for the forces of Protestantism over Catholicism encouraged a sense of national pride and renewed confidence in the ambitious policies of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I. In its wake came a period of high prosperity and commercial expansion stirred by a revival of interest in English history Elizabethan poets adapted classical and medieval literary traditions and texts to the writing of contemporary plays the plots of these secular entertainments were based in chronicles contemporary life or legend and the characters were comic moral or heroic. Elizabethan London played host to groups of traveling actors (or strolling players) who performed in public spaces or for generous patrons. theaters along with brothels and Taverns, were generally relegated to the suburbs but in the late 16th century a number of play houses were built along the River Thames across from the City of London. begun in 1599, the globe which held between 2000 and 3000 spectators offered all levels of society access to professional theater. the open air structure consisted of three tiers of gallery's and standing room for commoners (known as groundlings) at the cost of only a penny 1/6 of the price for a seat in the covered Gallery. stage props were basic but costumes were a favored and essential for the male actors who played all the female roles since women were not permitted on the public stage performances were held in the afternoon and advertised by flying a flag above the theater roof a globe the signature logo embellished Shakespeare's theater along with a sign that Totus mundus agit histrionem” (loosely, “all the world's a stage”) the bustling crowd that attended the theater some of whom stood through two or more hours of performance often eat and rank as they enjoyed the most cosmopolitan entertainment of their time. Shakespears’ Play In Shakespeare's time theater did not rank as highly as poetry as a literary genre. as popular entertainment however Shakespeare's play earned high acclaim in london's theatrical community thanks to the availability of printed editions the Bard of Stratford was familiar with the ancient Roman tragedies of Seneca and the comedies of plautus and Terence he knew the popular medieval morality plays that addressed the contest between good and evil as well as the popular improvisational form of Italian comic theater known as the commedia dell’ arte which made use of stock or stereotypical characters. all these resources came to shape the texture of his plays. for his plots Shakespeare drew largely on classical history medieval chronicles and contemporary romances. Like Macchiavelli Shakespeare was an avid reader ancient and medieval history as well as a keen observer of his own complex age; but the stories his sources provided became mere springboards for the exploration of human nature. His history plays such as Richard the 3rd and Henry the fifth celebrate england's medieval past and its rise to power under the two layers the concerns of these players however are not exclusively historical rather they explore the ways in which rulers behave under pressure the weight of kingly responsibilities on mere humans and the difficulties of reconciling Royal obligations and human aspirations These plays are the most significant evidence of the Renaissance effort to probe the psychological forces that motivate human action. Remarkable too as the brilliance of the language with which Shakespeare brings his characters to life apart from occasional passages in prose and grind verse his plays were written in blank verse. this verse form was popular among renaissance humanists because like classical poetry it was unrhymed and it closely approximated the rhythms of vernacular speech. in Shakespeare's hands the English language took on a breadth of expression and a measure of eloquence that have rarely been matched to this day. Hamlet, the world's most quoted play belongs to the popular renaissance genre of revenge tragedy the story itself came to Shakespeare from the history of medieval Denmark hamlet the young heir to the throne of Denmark learns that his uncle has murdered his father and married his mother in order to assume the throne the burden of avenging his father falls squarely on the sun's shoulders the Ark of the play follows Hamlets inability to take action his melancholic lack of resolve that in the long run results in the deaths of his mother Gertrude his betrothed Ophelia her father Polonius the King Claudius and finally hamlet himself. Shakespeare's hamlet differs from the heroes of ancient and medieval times. he lacks the sense of obligation to country and community, the passionate religious loyalties and the clearly defined spiritual values that drive such heroes as Gilgamesh, Achilles, and Roland. he represents a new, more modern personality one who self questioning disposition and brooding skepticism more closely resemble in modern existential antihero. Although tortured by doubt and sunk in melancholy, he shares that humanist view that human nature is freely self formed by human beings themselves. Hamlet first marvels. what a piece of work is a man how Noble in reason how infinite in faculty inform and moving how express and Admiral in action how like an Angel in apprehension how like a God the beauty of the world the Paragon of animals. but then he concludes on a note of utter skepticism and yet to me what is this quintessence of dust? (act 2 scene 2) it is by way of the oral examination of his innermost thoughts of literary device known as the soliloquy that hamlet most fully reveals himself in a painful process of self examination he questions the motives for meaningful action and the impulses that prevent him from action but at the same time he contemplates the futility of all human action: to be or not to be that is the question: whether it is nobler in the mind to suffer this slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, or to take arms against a sea of troubles and by opposing and them to die to sleep no more and by a sleep to say we end the heartache and the thousand natural shocks that flesh is heir to. tis a consummation devoutly to be wished to die to sleep to sleep perchance to dream a there's the rub for in that sleep of death what dreams may come when we have shuffled three off this mortal coil for must give us pause there's the respect that makes calamity of so long life four who would bear the whips and scorns of time the oppressor is wrong the proud man's contumely, the pangs of disprize love, the law's delay the insolence of office and the spurns that patient merits of th unworthy takes when he himself made his quietus make with a bare bodkin? who would fardels bear to grunt and sweat under a weary life but that the dread of something after death the undiscovered country from whose Bourn no traveler returns, puzzles they will and makes us rather bear those ills we have than fly to others that we know not of thus conscience does make cowards of us all; and thus the native hue of resolution is sicklied o’er with the pale cast of thought and enterprise is a great pitch and moment with this regard their currents turns awry and lose the name of action. (Act III, Scene 1) Japanese Theater The oldest form of Japanese theater, Nō drama, evolved in the 14th century from performances in song, dance, and mime. like Greek drama, the Nō play treated serious themes drawn from a legacy of history and literature. Nō drama was little concerned with character development or the realistic reenactment of actual events. rather it animated a familiar theme by means of a formalized selection of text, gestures, dance, and music (usually performed with flute and drum) a chorus sitting at the side of the square wooden stage might express the thoughts of the actors. As in ancient Greece all the roles in a no drama were performed by men elegant costumes and masks often carved and painted were used to portray individual characters. A single program of Nō drama which even to this day last some six or more hours consisted of a group of plays with selections from each of three types warrior plays God plays and woman plays comic interludes were provided between the players to lighten the serious mood. In the early 16th century, as Japan emerged from a feudal age, the new merchant class that occupied japan's growing commercial cities demanded new forms of entertainment from the “floating world” (ukiyo) of city culture- the world of sensual pleasures associated with the theaters and brothels of these towns- came a new form of stage performance known as kabuki. In its late 15th century origins, kabuki (literally “song dance art”) was originally a female performance genre. but within 20 years of its appearance in 1616 the Japanese government issued an edict that forbade women to appear on stage. Thereafter, performances featuring dance mime and song were staged by male actors in elaborate costumes wigs and makeup dramas that drew their plots from history myth puppet plays and daily life took place on a revolving stage that featured a long ramp leading from the audience to the rear of the stage elegant backdrops and scenic effects embellished that performance. Kabuki theater flourished as day-long entertainment that like no drama included three to five plays interrupted by intermissions to allow the audience to visit local teahouses and restaurants. Masanobu, Kabuki 1740. Colored woodblock print two fat men in the middle of the presentation. The similarities between Shakespearean theater in the West and Japanese theater and the East are numerous: both addressed an audience whose worldly interests were tide to commercial advantage and urban life. both took place in the pleasure quarters of the city and both were subject to governmental restrictions both were acted by all male casts who performed various play types such as history plays and domestic comedies Japanese theater however was and remains more formally stylized than Shakespearean theater kabuki dialogue is half spoken half sung often punctuated by woodwind or percussion instruments and movements are choreographed like dances Moreover the Japanese play rarely seeks as do most Shakespearean plays to explore the psychological development of the characters who are generally stock figures Despite the influence of European theater kabuki survives today as a vibrant performance art form that like Shakespearean theater constitutes a repository of the collective imagination and landmark in the dramatic arts. Northern Art Prior to the Protestant Reformation, in the cities of northern Europe a growing middle class joined princely rulers in charge patrons in demanding artworks that treated traditional religious themes. wealthy middle class patrons also commissioned portraits that like those painted by their Italian counterparts faithfully preserved their physical appearance in contrast with Italy, however, 15th century artists in the Netherlands and Germany were relatively unfamiliar with Greco-Roman culture. they did not adopt for instance the classical architectural ideals of their southern neighbors. Nevertheless, in both painting and the new art of printmaking they moved in the direction of detailed realism already evident in the illuminated manuscripts of the Limbourg brothers they brought to their work a deep attachment to the physical world or a new zeal for devotional images and a fondness for moralizing themes. Jan van Eyck The pioneer in early Netherlandish art was the Flemish painter Jan van Eyck who was reputed to have perfected the art of oil painting .van eyck's application of thin translucent glazes of colored pigments bound with linseed oil achieved impression of dense atmospheric space and simulated the naturalistic effects of light reflecting off the surfaces of objects effects that were almost impossible to achieve in fresco or tempera lacking knowledge of linear perspective. Van Eyck was nevertheless able to achieve an extraordinary level of realism in the miniatures he executed for religious manuscripts his panel paintings. His oil technique brought him fame in his own lands as well as in Italy and Spain In 1434, van Eyck painted a landmark full length double portrait, the 1st in western art to portray a secular couple in a domestic interior. the painting has long been the subject of debate among scholars who have questioned its original purpose as well as the identity of the sitters it was thought to represent the marriage of Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini (an Italian cloth merchant who represented the Medici bank in Bruges) to Jeanne Cenami, but it has recently been discovered that Jeanne died in 1433, a year before the date of the painting. Since so many elements in the painting suggest a betrothal, however, it is speculated that Giovanni who knew van Eyck in Bruges for many years, might have remarried in 1434 and commissioned the artist to record the union. clearly the couple are in the process of making some type of vow: witness to join hands and the raised right hand of the richly dressed man. Above the convex mirror on the wall behind the couple is the inscription Johannes de Eyck fuit hic (Jan van Eyck was here) information reiterated by the reflection in the mirror of the artist and a second observer many other objects in this domestic setting suggest a sacred union: the burning handle traditionally carried to the marriage ceremony by the bride symbolizes the divine presence of Christ, the dog represents Fidelity, the ripening fruit that lies near and on the window sill alludes to the union of the first couple in the garden of Eden, and the carved image of Saint Margaret of Antioch (on the chair back near the bed) patron Saint of women and childbirth signifies aspirations for a fruitful alliance. we may never know for certain who these figures represent however he enduring vitality of the painting lives not with the identity of the sitters but with an ice consummate mastery of minute realistic details from the raffles on the females head covering to the whiskers of the monkey-face dog Van Eyck’s realism captures an intimate moment the act of marriage that prior to church reforms of the 16th century was contracted simply by verbal vows and the joining of hands. Bosch Hieronymus Bosch was one of the most enigmatic figures of Northern Renaissance. His career spanned the decades of the high renaissance in Italy but comparison of his paintings with those of Raphael or Michelangelo underscores the enormous difference between Italian renaissance art and that of the European North: whereas Raphael and Michelangelo elevated the natural nobility of the individual, Bosch detailed the fallibility of humankind, its moral struggle and its apocalyptic destiny. botch's most famous painting is a triptych (three parts painting) known as the garden of earthly delights. the imagery of Bosch’s painting, a work of astonishing complexity has baffled and intrigued scholars for centuries for well oh seems to present the traditional Christian theme of creation fall and punishment it does so with an assortment of wildly unconventional images drawn from dozens of sources from popular proverbs and pilgrimage badges to the pseudoscience of bosch's time astrology the study of the influence of heavenly bodies on human affairs (the precursor of astronomy) and now to make the art of transmuting base metals into gold (the precursor of chemistry) Hieronymus Bosch, The creation of Eve: The Garden of Earthly Delights: The Tortures of Hell. When the wings of the altarpiece are closed, one sees an image of God hovering above a huge transparent globe: the planet earth in the process of creation. An accompanying inscription reads: “For he spoke and it came to be he commanded and had stood firm” psalms 33:9 when the wings are opened the left one shows the creation of Eve, but the event takes place in an Eden populated with fabulous and predatory creatures (such as the cat at lower left) in the central panel boards of youthful nudes cavort in a variety of erotic and playful pastimes. they frolic with oversized flora and fruit, real and imagined animals, gigantic birds, and transparent beakers and tubes normally used in alchemical distillation, a process of creation and destruction analogous to the biblical creation and fall. in the right wing, Bosch pictures hell as the dark, sulfurous inferno occupied by egg-shaped vessels and infernal machines made of musical instruments. the damned whose torments are inflicted by an assortment of sinister creatures suffer punishments appropriate to their sins the hoarder at lower right pays for his greed by excreting gold into a pothole the nearby noon punished for this end of lust is fondled by demons. the garden of earthly delights has been described as an exposition on the decadent behavior of the descendants of Adam and Eve. Grünewald German artists of the North brought to religious subject matter spiritual intensity and emotional subjective unmatched elsewhere in Europe. in the paintings of Matthias Gothard Neithardtbetter known as Grünewald naturalistic detail to produce the most painfully expressive painting style in all of 16th century northern art. Grünewald’s landmark work, the Isenheim was commissioned to offer solace to the victims of disease and plague at the hospital of Saint Anthony in Isenheim France. Like the imitatio Christi, which instructed Christians to seek identification with Jesus, this multipaneled altarpiece reminded it's suffering viewers of their kinship with the crucified Jesus depicted in the central panel. Grünewald rejects harmonious proportion and figural idealization in favor of dramatic exaggeration and brutally precise detail: the body of Jesus is lengthened to emphasize its weight as it hangs from the bowed arms of the Cross, the gray-green flesh putrefies with clotted bloody and angry thorns, the fingers convulsed and curl in agony, while the feet broken and bruised- contort in a spasm of pain. Grünewald places the scene in a darkened landscape and exaggerates the gestures of the lamenting attendants: John the Baptist, for instance, points an oversized finger to the pathetic Latin inscription that explains his mystical presence he must increase and I must decrease” (John 3:30) The Protestant Reformation and Printmaking Although secular subject matter such as portraiture provided abundant inspiration for northern artists the austerity of the Protestant Reformation cast a long shadow upon religious art. Protestants condemned the traditional images of medieval piety, the rejecting relics and sacred images as sources of superstition and idolatry. Protestant iconoclasts stripped the stained glass from Catholic churches whitewashed church frescoes and destroyed altarpieces and religious icons at the same time however Protestant reformers embraced devotional imagery especially biblical subjects for private use in the production of such imagery advances and printmaking were a technological landmark just as movable type had facilitated the spread of the written word so the technology of printmaking facilitated the reproduction of images more cheaply and in greater numbers than ever before. the two new printmaking processes of the 15th century where would cut the technique of cutting the way all parts of a design on a wood surface except those that will be inked and transferred to paper and engraving the process by which lines are incised on a metal usually cropper plate that isn't and run through a printing press books with printed illustrations became cheap alternatives to the hand illuminated manuscripts that were prohibitively expensive to all but wealthy patrons Dürer The unassailed leader in Northern Renaissance printmaking and one of the finest graphic artist of all time was Albrecht Dürer of owner of Nuremberg trained as an engraver, Dürer earned international fame for his woodcuts and metal engravings. Dürer, was as, well and enthusiastic student of Italian renaissance art. His mastery of the laws of linear perspective and human anatomy and his investigations into classical principles of proportions (enhanced by two trips to Italy) equal those of the best Italian renaissance artist scientist. In genre of portraiture, Dürer was the match of Raphael but, unlike Raphael, he recorded the features of his sitters with little idealization. Exccuted from life, his portrait engraving of Erasmus captures the concentrated intelligence of the of Humanists. Dürer’s Self Portrait of 1500 reflects his indebtedness to Jan van Eyck in its realistic treatment of hair and fur, and to Leonardo da Vinci in its psychological depth. The meditative solemnity and hieratic frontal pose are similar to representation of Jesus as Salvator Mundi (savior of the world) suggesting that Dürer intended the portratit as kinf of Imitation Christi that is a self image of the artist in the guise of Jesus. Dürer brought to the art of his day a profoundly religious view of the world and a desire to embody the spiritual message of scripture in art. the series of woodcuts keep reduced to illustrate the last book of the New Testament, the Book of Revelation (also called the apocalypse) reveals the extent to which dollar achieved his purpose executed two decades before luther's revolt the four horsemen of the apocalypse- one of 15 woodcuts in this seriesbrings to life the terrifying prophecies described in revelation 6:1-8 amid billowing clouds death in the foreground famine carrying a pair of scales war brandishing the sword and pestilence drawing his bow sweep down upon humankind their victims fall beneath the horses hooves or as with the Bishop in the lower left are devoured by infernal monsters. Dürer’s image seems a grim prophecy of the coming age in which 5,000,000 people would die in religious wars. Dürer mastered many media. His notebooks like those of Leonardo reflect a mind that was both curious and analytic. An avid traveler he spent four years visiting the major cities of Germany and twice crossed the Alps into Italy, keeping travel journals in which he made a number of fine landscape studies. The genre of landscape painting had been pioneered by the Romans who drew on nature for illusionistic frescoes and as settings for pastoral scenes as early as the 8th century the Chinese made the landscape a subject in its own right in European art before 1490 however landscapes appeared only as backgrounds for religious scenes and secular portraits. Dürer established the panoramic landscape as a legitimate genre in western art his topa graphic landscapes are rendered in the elusive medium of watercolor. To these works as well as to his detailed studies of animals birds and plants, Dürer brought the pen of an engraver and the eye of scientific naturalist. Cranach and Holbein The German cities with the 16th century produced some of the finest draftsman in the history of western art. A contemporary of Dürer, Lucas Cranach the elder was a highly acclaimed court painter at Wittenberg and like Dürer a devout champion of Protestant reform. although he often worked for Catholic patrons, Cranach painted and engraved numerous portraits of Protestant leaders the most notable of whom was his close friend Martin. In his several other portraits of Luther, Cranach employed expressive line to define form capture the confident demeanor of the famous reformer. Human folly. Hans Holbein the younger often celebrated as the greatest of German portraitists was born in Augsburg but spent much of his life in Switzerland, France and England. with a letter of introduction from his friend Erasmus, Holbein in traveled to England where he earned fame as a portraitist. On his second trip to England Holbeim became the favored of Henry the 8th whose likeness he captured along with portraits of his current and prospective wives. in common with Dürer and Cranach, Holbein was a master of line. all three artists manifested the integration of brilliant draftsmanship and precise realistic detail that characterizes the art of the northern renaissance. Holbein, however, was unique in his minimal use of line to evoke a penetrating sense of the sitters personality. so lifelike are some of holbein portraits that modern scholars have suggested he made use of technical aids such as the camera lucida ( a the device using the prism to project onto paper an image that the artist can copy or trace) in their preparation. Bruegel the career of the last great 16th century Flemish painter, Pieter Bruegel The Elder followed that of most other northern renaissance masters by a generation. like Dürer he had traveled to Italy and embraced the humanism of the Renaissance. Unlike his older contemporary, however, Bruegel expressed only a passing interest in religious and classical subject matter. his preoccupation with the activities of rustic life which earned him the title “Peasant Bruegel” made him an heir to the Limbourg brothers while his detailed landscapes popularized the growing interest in the natural world anticipated by Dürer, Bruegel’s genre paintings (representations with the everyday life of ordinary people) were not small scale renderings but monumental transcriptions of rural activities sometimes infused with symbolic meaning hunters in the snow one of a series of paintings designed to illustrate seasonal activities renders the Flemish countryside as a cosmos setting for the ordinary labors of hunters as they trudge home work through the bitter cold. Bruegel shared the northern humanists concerned with human folly his paintings and prints often drew unpopular northern European proverbs to illustrate the consequences of violence prejudice and immorality the blind leading the blind. Possibly a commentary on the religious zealousness of breugel's time the painting brings to life the famous biblical parable and if the blind lead the blind both shall fall into the ditch. like Eramus and More whose works he admired bruegel makes use of satire to address a favor team in 16th century northern European culture the folly of humankind. Northern Music Music and Reformation Since the Reformation clearly dominated the religious and social history of the 16th century, it also touched directly or indirectly, all forms of artistic endeavor including music. Luther himself was a student of music, an active performer, and an admirer of Josquin de Prez. Emphasizing music as a source of religious instruction, he encouraged the writing of hymnals and reorganized the German mass to include both congregational and professional singing. Luther held that all religious texts should be sung in German, so that the faithful might understand their message. the text, according to Luther, should be both comprehensible and appealing. Luther's favored musical form was the chorale, of congregational hymn that serve to enhance the spirit of Protestant worship. Chorales written in German drew on Latin hymns and German folk tunes. they were characterized by monophonic clarity and simplicity, features that facilitated performance by untrained congregations. the most famous Lutheran chorale (the melody of which may not have originated with Luther) is “Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott” (A mighty fortress is our God”; 1528) a hymn that has been called the anthem of the Reformation Luther’s chorales had a major influence on religious music for centuries. In the hands of later composers, the corral became a complex polyphonic vehicle for voices and instruments; however, at its inception it was performed with all voices singing the same words at the same time it was thus an ideal medium for the communal expression of Protestant piety. The organ was dismantled and sung portions of the services were edited or deleted. Calvin included the congregational singing of psalms in the vernacular. Elizabethan Music the Anglican break with Roman Catholicism had less effect on religious liturgy and church music than that which occur among Lutheran and Calvinist Protestants. indeed one of the greatest English composers, the Catholic William Byrd continued to write music for the mass as well as compositions for the Reformed Church. it was during the reign of Elizabeth I, however, and especially after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, that England enjoyed a Golden age of music making comparable to that Shakespearean theater. Music held an important place in Shakespeare's plays and informal musicmaking (although not yet public concert performance) prevailed in the Royal Court and in the homes of musical amateurs. Every contemporary style and genre of music graced the age of Elizabeth I but it was the madrigal that became the rage. Usually based on Italian models, the English madrigal was generally lighter in mood than its Italian counterpart. it was also often technically simple enough to be performed by amateurs. two of the most popular Elizabethan composers Thomas Morley and Thomas Weelkes composed English language solo songs and madrigals that are still enjoyed today. in additions writing hundreds of popular unambitious collection entitled Madrigals, the triumphes of Oriana, works written by 24 composers to pay homage to Elizabeth I. Each song it addressed the Virgin Queen with a closing phrase, “Long live fair Oriana” the name derived from the Latin word “sunrise” included in this collection is Weelke’s madrigal “As Vesta was from Latmos Hill descending” which displays his facility for very textures and artful word painting.devo