World History Lecture Notes: Week 6-9

Week 6 → The Scientific Revolution: Europe, the Ottoman Empire, China, and the Americas (16001800) ● Peace of Augsburg (1555) ○ Allowed for Catholics and Protestants to coexist in Europe ○ Agreement between high-ranking members of the two sects ○ Achieved: ■ (1) “Whose realm, his religion” ● Each state has their own religion and their monarch with their own religion, for average people your religion depended on what state you lived in/what your monarch practiced ● The religion of the prince became the religion of the state and all of its inhabitants ● Those who refused to conform could leave without fear or threat of violence (... in theory) ■ (2) Ecclesiastical Reservation ● If the prelate (your religious superior/bishop) changed his religion, the local inhabitants did not have to follow suit ● Lots of conversion from protestantism to catholicism at this time ■ (3) Ferdinand’s Declaration ● Holy Roman Emperor at the time of the peace ● Exempted knights and some cities from the requirement of religious uniformity ■ * In general terms, as imperfect as it was, this peace accord created a fair amount of stability with respect to religious turmoil on the continent and overseas as well. ○ Archduke Ferdinand II (1617) ■ King of Bohemia (modern day Czech Republic), all European leaders are currently Hapsburgs ■ Ferdinand II was a devout Catholic and viewed his monarch position in absolutist terms, which was a problem to the Peace of Augsburg because Bohemia was a center of religious and societal changes in Europe at the time ■ He appoints Catholic officials to many spaces in Prague, and riels up individuals which boils over in May 1618 ○ Defenestration of Prague (1618) ■ Leads to Protestant and Boheim officials literally throwing out Catholic priests and officials ■ Serves as the start of the 30 years war ● Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) ○ Catholics fighting Protestants, but also political complexities and the involvement of other European powers ○ Dislike also for the Hapsburgs and the French monarchy led to conflict ○ Ends with the: ● Treaty of Westphalia (January 1648) ○ (1) builds on the Treaty of Augsburg ■ All conversions and seizures of Church property before 1624 remained in place ■ At the start of the 30 years’ war, the Catholics were winning and took territories but eventually shifted to the Protestants, therefore the Catholic Church could keep what they took before 1624 but had to turnover everything grabbed after ○ (2) All major powers recognized Calvinism ■ *close* to Protestanitsm, before this no major power really recognized the religion, played a large role in the TYW ○ (3) Rulers were no longer allowed to change the religion their subjects ■ The monarch could practice their own religion and the subjects their own, no longer do they have to convert, which created resentment in European society ○ (4) Create the European Conference System ■ Guaranteed the sovereignty of rulers, regardless of size ■ Absolutism was embraced throughout the continent ● European “Conference System” (1648) ○ The maintenance of the balance of power ○ It would benefit the European state, religious system, and efforts abroad to have a balance of power on the continent ○ The best way to maintain their absolutist system was to be sure no other power would take their own power/absolutism away ● Still, there are Religious Division in Europe and overseas ○ Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, Luterhs, Anglicans … ○ Religious turmoil still exists, but we will not see again the scale of (exclusively religious) warfare that has been seen previously to the Treaty of Westphalia ○ Europe at a time of crisis … ● With the scientific revolutions and these religious times, there will be a doubling down of sorts in individuals in their own religious convictions which leads to → ○ A rebellion against scientific achievements, A New Heaven or a New Hell? ● Witchcraft in an Age of Scientific Discovery ? ○ The TYW was so catastrophic and impactful on the continent, few places were spared from violence, much occupation ○ This leads to chaos in some cases, and claims of witchcraft grows ○ Also the belief within men that because women were impacted less by the TYW, and suspected them of having something nefarious to do with them … ● Salem Witch Trials (1692) ● To explain witcherty the term: Maleficium, was coined ○ A systematic approach to find and understand witches ○ Def. a forum or version of magic that denoted wrongdoing, evil doing, malevolence that was considered evil by society or the Church ○ Sexual “deviancy” was a sign of a witch ● Nicholas Remy (1590) ○ Claimed to be a witch hunter and set out rules for finding them ○ “It is not unreasonable that this scum of humanity [witches] should be drawn chiefly from the feminie sex.” ● Heinrich Kramer ○ Another famous inquisitor ○ Author of the Malleus Maleficarum (1586), translates into the “Witch’s Hammer” ● Three Key Points in the Malleus Maleficarum (1586): ○ (1) Examines the concept of witchcraft from a theological perspective and concludes that witches real because the Devil is real ○ (2) Explores actual cases, and the supposed powers that witches possess, this section also accuses witches as Satan’s primary recruiters on Earth, their main tactic usually centers on ruining the life of a “respectable” matron ○ (3) Describes the legal forms and procedures for how to prosecute witches, it offers a step-by-step guide for witch trials, methods of interrogation (including torture), and the formal charging of the accused Week 7 → The “Age of Enlightenment” and Revolution (1650-1850) ____________________________ ● Aufklärung in German ● John Locke (British) ○ On Property: ■ Natural law holds that property originally comes by the exertion of labor upon resources in Nature ■ Property: “Life, Liberty, and Estate” ■ Political society exists in order to protect property and to serve the private interested of its constituent members ■ For this account to work, individuals must own property outside of society that is free from the state ● The state exists to be sure that all of our needs are maintained in order to protect us from ourselves ■ Each individual, at a minimum, owns themselves - this is a corollary of each individual’s state of freedom and equality in the state of Nature ● (everybody has a right to their own selves, your ability to exert labor shows that you own yourself, no one can own you and command your own autonomy) ■ If we accept this premise, then we must also accept that people must own their own labor → otherwise they are a slave ● Does not come out against slavery ● Instead is a statement in favor of an enlightened monarch ■ “He that is nourished by the acorns he picked up under an oak, the apples he gathered from trees in the wood, has certainly appropriated them to himself. Nobody can deny that these are his.” ● If you control your own self, and have the means to exert your own labor, we must then accept everyone has a right to property ● John-Jaceques Rousseau's Social Contract ○ Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer ○ Division of labor and private property in society required humanity to adopt institutions of law → in a state of nature, man is prone to frequent competition with his fellow man, which threatens his survival and freedom ■ Advocate for a strong/clearly defined state to protect humanity from itself, or continuation of fighting over property ○ “Social Contract” theory: individuals should join into civil society through the social contract and abandon claims of natural right ■ The government/monarch has to guarantee that giving up property/natural rights to social orders for maintenance of peace ○ Submission to authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves as well ● Adam Smith (1723-1790) ○ Creator of modern capitalism ○ Author of the Wealth of Nations - foundational text of capitalism ■ Laissez faire (free trade, hands off government) ● Immanuel Kant (German) (1724-1804) ○ “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from self-imposed nonage. Nonage is the inability to use one’s understanding without another’s guidance. This nonage is self-imposed if its cause lies not in lack of understanding but in indecision and lack of courage to use one’s mind without another’s guidance. Dare to know!” ■ Daring humanity to think for themselves and question another’s world and societally constructed truths ■ Don’t always accept the positions in authority, challenge understanding ■ Challenge political leaders and the Church ● French Revolution’s (1789) impact on the European continent an in relation to the American Revolution, global uprisings with democratic springs (enlightenment) ○ Formation of the National Assembly (17 June 1789) ○ Leads to Bastille Day ○ Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) ■ “Men are born and remain free in rights” ■ A revolution of rights and reason ● France’s colony St. Dominique (Hati) (1791) during the French Revolution ○ Port-au-prince, Western part of St.Dominique is the French colony (FRENCH) ■ Primary based upon slave labor, and for economic gain ● Forced to work in sugar cane fields ■ Racial hierarchy as their legitimacy in the region ■ Further complication with mixed race individuals in positions of power ○ Santo Domingo (Eastern half) (SPANISH) ■ Similar economy based on slave labor and sugar cane ■ Racial hierarchy was used as much (if not more) to justify their station on the island, tension between Spanish and French authorities on the island ○ When the French revolution happens → the rights of man have those with mixed races feel that they should have equal rights ○ Fall 1971 → “Slave Rebellion” ■ Initially isolated to the French half but quickly picks up steam when the white French men lash out further against mixed race/slaves ■ The rebellion in 1792 leads to British intervention when they get involved on the side of the slaves/black Africans ● Not because they wanted equality for the Blacks, but they wanted to antagonize the French because of the French’s aid to the 13 colonies ● The Spanish also jump in with the British because they worry that the rebellion will spread over to the Spanish side of the island ○ Toussaint Louverture (“the one who opened the way”) ■ Born into slaverly in modern Hati but nonetheless received a good education from a free Black in the area, through this education he learned to read and write ■ When the DRMC he hears of its publication and is inspired by what is happening in France, wants this to extend to them as well ■ Joins the “Free Blacks” → serves as a militia of the escapees of slavery and free Blacks, fight against the French ■ Under his leadership, they formally join the Spanish side in an effort to overthrow French rule ■ Louverture was able to convenience the Spanish that the Free Blacks and himself could rule on the other half of the island ○ Louverture’s “Brothers and Friends …” ■ “I want liberty and equality to reign … working to make that happen... Unite yourselves to us, brothers, and fight with us for the same cause.” ○ February 1794 → French abolishment of Slavery throughout the Empire ■ Not exactly because of events in France, but those in St. Dominique ○ “They succeeded in freeing themselves” (Louverture) ■ Switch sides to start fighting against the Eastern Spanish side ■ In 1796, the Spanish give up control of the region for a while, and for a period of time the whole island is under French control ■ In theory, this place has a full-fledged equality ● These dialogues of enlightenment don’t just happen in mainland Europe. Although their words can spread outward from there, it's the people in the “East” who stand up. Week 8 → Capitalism and the Industrial Revolution (1750-1900) ________________________________ ● What is enlightenment? ● Industrial revolution in Britain: ○ Textiles (begin with looms, cotton) (& colonial India) ○ Agriculture ● Industrial revolution in India: ○ At the turn of the nineteenth century, was on a rollercoaster of development given different villages and towns, when the Dutch East India company gives way to the British, they force their own “industrial revolution” (i.e. railroads) ● Iwakawa Mission to establish Japan’s first national bank (1871) ● Revolutions in: Britain, US, Japan, China, and India ● Promise and Potential: ○ Nobility - these members of society in the early stages of the industrial revolution ■ Concerned with what the industrial revolution would do their rights as nobles ○ Bourgeoisie - Middle-Class populations, a French term ■ French landowners who made their living off of property and rents ■ Separate themselves from the working classes, but aren't nobility either ■ They want to come off as nobility in Europe ■ Gross Tiergarten (in Berlin, great animal garden, basically central park) ■ Adam Smith (1723-1790) ● The Wealth of Nations (1776) ○ Proletariat/Working Class (Life on the Margins) ■ “...was anything but fun.” ■ Ida Tarbell and the lack of working regulations ■ Rockefeller and Carnegie and crew making life worse ● Karl Marx and Freidrich Engles (1848) ○ The Communist Manifesto ○ “They argued that capitalism would inevitably self-destruct and not even need to be overthrown manually, and would be replaced by socialist reforms and ultimately communism.” (my words) Week 9 → Colonized and the Colonizers ___________________________________________________ ● The Communist Manifesto: ○ Preamble: “A specter is haunting Europe -- the specter of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this specter.” ○ Elucidates a materialist conception of history: ■ “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” ○ “Bourgeoisie” and the “Proletariat” ○ Progressive income tax, the abolition of inheritance, abolition of child labor, free public education, and the nationalization of public transportation ○ Communist Manifesto’s immediate impact/reception on society ● Colonialism in the “Enlightened” Age (1800s → ) ○ Justifications for Overseas Imperialism: ■ Economic and trade potential (Mercantilism) ■ “Civilizing mission” and a belief in cultural superiority ● Race, religion, and culture as a justification ■ Codification of legal codes, administrative culture, and political systems ■ The spread of Christianity (through Missionaries) ● Many of the first encounters with colonized populations ■ Cultivation of “empty space” ● Everybody knows that territory isn’t empty, but to them, it might as well be empty because the populations aren’t using the land in their ways ■ “Technological superiority” ● Might makes right ■ “Great Power” politics → strategic advantage from the Global North ■ “Humanitarian Intervention” ● Intervention usually through militarized forces ● Companies and NGOs and states ship goods overseas with good intentions, but unintentionally create a dependent relationship or misunderstand the situation impacting the region, problems with access to food, not necessarily a lack of food in general ● Create a relationship where the goods come with attachments or requirements, a relationship has to be established exclusively with us, and not another state or group ● Berlin Conference (1884-1885) ○ The belief that the “scramble for Africa” started now, but actually had already taken place ○ Conference authorizes legally what had already taken place ○ Established international guidelines to prevent conflicts between European states in the region, less about Africa itself and more about the European relationships there ○ A period of “Zero-sum gains” ■ “Zero-sum is a situation in game theory in which one person's gain is equivalent to another's loss, so the net change in wealth or benefit is zero.” ○ 3 primary outcomes of the General Act of the Conference of Berlin ■ (1) Vow to end slavery amongst “Black and Islamic powers” ● An effort to seem morally superior to other non-signatory colonial powers ■ (2) Delegates declare the Congo Free State as the private property of Belgian King Leopold II ● Fear of a “free for all” if it didn’t go to Belgium ● Value for rubber production and diamonds ■ (3) * All colonial conquest must be “legal” in the eyes of the European community ● No longer can a King or state official exclusively sail and drop anchor and take an entire region unilaterally ● Principle of Effectivity ○ “A Principle of Effectivity was introduced to prevent powers from setting up colonies in name only. Any fresh act of taking possession of any portion of the African coast would have to be notified by the power taking possession or to the other signatory powers in a protectorate.” ● Powers can establish rights overland only if they possess them, establish a governing administration, fly their flag, treaties with local leaders, even a police force to keep populations … ○ “Conference of Berlin divided Africa not for its own benefit but to prevent any future conflict between European powers in colonial endeavors.” (my words) ○ LEADS TO THE “GENERAL ACT” being published ● Monroe Doctrine (December 2, 1823) [pulled from Britannica] ○ Cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy enunciated by Pres. James Monroe in his annual message to Congress ○ Declaring that the Old World and New World had different systems and must remain distinct spheres ○ Monroe established four key points: ■ (1) the United States would not interfere in the internal affairs of or the wars between European powers ■ (2) the United States recognized and would not interfere with existing colonies and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere ■ (3) the Western Hemisphere was closed to future colonization ■ (4) any attempt by a European power to oppress or control any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the United States - There is no such thing as monolithic colonialism, all efforts were a sum of different explanations for their colonization ● “Effectivity” and its Consequences: ○ If colonial populations failed to realize the “benefit” of imperial rule, Europeans deemed it permissible to use all means necessary (including physical violence) to show them its “virtue” ○ Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) ■ Between the British and the Boers (Afrikkaners), Afrikkaners are specifically from Duth colonization who want to be considered as Europeans ● Afrikkaners wanted their own state/independence ■ “Boer ultimatum that the British should cease building up their forces in the region. The Boers had refused to grant political rights to non-Boer settlers, known as Uitlanders, most of whom were British, or to grant civil rights to Africans.” ● Discovery of diamonds and other material goods that grow, also a fear of different indigenous populations ■ Essentially 3 groups fighting for the space: the Afrikkaners, the Boers, and the British ■ Eventually send 400,000 British soldiers to the region, which is controversial and even in England ■ The Boers engage in guerilla warfare ■ British that event Concentration Camps in the Anglo-Boer War ● Not annihilation like the Nazis, but concentration potential enemies in a single location for strategic advantage, lack of resources and human rights abuses ■ British win in 1902 and sign treaties but this drastic costs and impacts, that still follow them when WWI begins even ○ French Algeria (1830-1962) ■ Arguably the most important French colony in its entire Empire/history ● Important port-city for trade, continue to colonize down to secure ● For the French to maintain effectivity, they continued to conquer more space to expand borders and trade network while continuing to have control of the coastline ● “Civilize” the indigenous populations in Algeria ■ Frantz Fanon (The Wretched of the Earth) ● “When we consider the resources deployed to achieve the cultural alienation so typical of colonial period, we realize that nothing was left to change, and that the final aim of colonization that it would save them from darkness, the result was the hammed into the heads of the colonized that if colonizers were to leave they would regress into barbarity ___” ○ German Southwest Africa (DWSA) ■ Present-day Namibia ■ Germany’s first but only settler colony ■ Herero and Namaquan Genocide: ● “The Herero and Nama genocide was the first genocide of the 20th century, waged by the German Empire against the Ovaherero, the Nama, and the San in German South West Africa. It occurred between 1904 and 1908.” ○ German East Africa (DOA) ■ Colony as a commodity, using this as an excuse for continued colonialism ● Soap advertisements as an example ● “Another town, another girl.” ○ None of this is unique to Germany ■ Theodor Leutwein ● Governor, led the treaties, negotiations with the Herero ■ German-Herero-Namaqua War (1904-1908) ● Hendrik Witbooi and the Namaqua ○ Leader of one of the main Nama nations during the period ○ More successful in resisting German rule