Women and Minorities in Roman Society

“… to defy Romanreligio also meant rejecting the power 1 of the Roman emperor and the empire itself” : Examining the Roles of Gender, Class, and Christianity of Women and Minorities in Roman Society Allison Brown HIST 2290: Ancient Rome Professor Nickerson Kestner 6 November, 2020 1 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.130) 1 “To defy Romanreligio and to worship as a Christian meant rejectingmos themaiorum, or ancestral costumes of the Romans, in favor of Christian rites. Because of this relationship in Rome between religion and the state, to defy Roman religio also meant rejecting the power of 2 the Roman emperor and the empire itself” . In martyr Perpetua’s Roman Empire, that is the early two-hundreds of the common era, choosing to pursue life as a Christian is a dangerous path lined with the loss of personal rights and the ever-present threat of execution. In order to answer the question of why Perpetua’s story is an example of how women in Rome existed and why Christianity gained such traction with women in the Empire, it is first necessary to examine how Christianity developed in Rome even when it was illegal, then explore how gender, class, and religion affected the lives of women in the Empire. Christianity and Roman Government had a tenuous relationship that started with Jesus Christ’s crucifixion at the start of Christianity during Pionius Pilate’s rule. By the year 200 CE, “... Christians as a whole [would] have represented only the tiniest fraction of the empire’s population”3. From the start of the religion, Rome with its leaders and citizens alike suspected Christianity, “... from the mid-third century to the early fourth, the Roman State actively persecuted Christians … they were labelled a menace to society, an officially sponsored efforts 4 were made to extirpate their cult” . State-wide persecution for this “cult” came in three stages, the first starting in 249. During this first persecution which stretched until 251, during this period there were large empire-wide sacrifices to gods and other violence that allegedly resulted in the 2 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.130) 3 Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. “The Romans: From Village to Empire” , Second ed., Oxford University Press, 2004, (pg. 424) 4 Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. The “Romans: From Village to Empire”, Second ed., Oxford University Press, 2004, (pg. 424) 2 5 death of thousands of Christians . The 2nd State Persecution ranged from 257 to 260. Though it initially targeted towards Clergymen, persecution soon included upper-class Christians who 6 would not renounce their faith and faced loss of property and execution . The 3rd and final “Great Persecution” would start in 303, initiated by Diocletian and Galerius. A strategy for this bout of violence was to target and destroy Christian meeting places. Additionally, Christians had no legal privileges when tried. This 3rd state-wide effort ended in the Western Empire in 305, but 7 continued in the East until 311 with Galerius’ Edict of Toleration which brought an end to government-wide persecution of the Christians in Rome, and ultimately set the stage for Emperor Constantine to legalize Christianity later in the Roman Empire. Persecution throughout the Empire created martyrs, those who would die for their religion, such as Perpetua. But why was Christianity so enticing to Romans, particularly women and the lower classes? Part of this answer, for women at least, is to do with gender roles and norms in the Empire. ThroughoutPerpetua’s Journey , Perpetua’s identity as a woman clearly impacts her life both as a citizen in Carthage and as a Christian woman. Although a quotation from much earlier in the Empire’s history, the words of the Tribune L.Valerius in 195 B.C.E. still ring true to a degree, at least in a stereotypical and public view, some four hundred years later in Rome, “No offices, no priesthoods, no triumphs, no spoils of war. Elegance, adornment, finery … these are a 8 woman’s insignia, these are what our forefathers called the woman’s world” . Although to a certain degree these ideals still held true in the Empire, especially for women in upper-class 5 Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. The “Romans: From Village to Empire”, Second ed., Oxford University Press, 2004, (pg. 249-251) 6 Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. The “Romans: From Village to Empire”, Second ed., Oxford University Press, 2004, (pg. 257-260) 7 Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. The “Romans: From Village to Empire”, Second ed., Oxford University Press, 2004, (pg. 273-274) 8 Bauman, Richard A.Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. 2016. (pg.3) 3 society, however, the perception of women in Rome was more dynamic than these simple gender norms, “For the Romans, gender is produced at the place where anatomical sex is intersected by social relations, especially power relations. Perpetua behaved according to the expectations for a male fighter when she fought in the area, which was traditionally considered a space in the 9 Roman world where men could acquire power and status” . Perhaps more women in Rome could find a foothold in a male-dominated society outside the ring, but suffrage and direct participation in politics would continue to be an issue, the matron Hortensia in 42 B.C.E. elaborates, “Why should we pay taxes when we have no part in the sovereignty, the offices, the campaigns, the policy-making for which you contend against each other with such pernicious results?”10. Although women in Rome cannot vote or hold offices, they are still able in a way to contribute to society without their suffrage. The Roman family during Perpetua’s time functioned similarly to ‘traditional’ family dynamics that are accustom today. paterfamilias A governed the individual family, in Perpetua’s case, her father. This male-lead in the household was expected to have control over all the family in the household, including grandchildren and slaves. He was also expected to be the head of all the household's legal, social, and religious actions. If they faltered, he could be held responsible, “If paterfamilias a was not effective as head of the household, then his status as an upright Roman citizen could be in jeopardy. When Perpetua’s father begs her to consider the consequences of her actions and how it might affect her family, he 11 is thinking of his status and her safety” . In Perpetua’s situation, her family-dynamic still 9 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.160) 10 Bauman, Richard A.Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. 2016. (pg.4) 11 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.146) 4 functioned under her paterfamilias, but her education and class in society led her to exercise more freedom than some other women in the Empire. Throughout Perpetua’s story, we understand that she comes from a wealthy family in Carthage, which undeniably gave her certain privileges that would have been less available to Roman women in the lower socio-economic classes at the time. Carthage itself in Perpetuas life served as the, “... Roman provincial governor’s center of operations and the administrative base for the province … a center of trade … and wealthy Romans settled in the estates formerly 12 owned by Beber ruling families” . Expectations existed for Perpetua because of her families’ status to conform to traditional Roman gender and religious norms, neither of which she did. The text indicates that Perpetua was well educated, assumably through a private tutor at her home 13 with her siblings and had a lawful marriage , but Perpetua’s story in part is so famous as a martyr because she gave up her wealthy life and upper-class lifestyle in Carthage to live, and die, as a Christian. This again begs the question of why was Christianity so enticing to women, lower-class individuals, and slaves throughout Rome? Early Imperial Rome “...was one of the most 'multicultural’ cities in antiquity … groups 14 flocked into the city and formed their communities” . This diversity in Rome included women, slaves, lower-income citizens, and other minorities. Christianity was a driving factor that enticed these marginalized groups on the fringes of Roman society because, “... Christianity appealed to slaves [and others] alike because it taught that all were equals in the Christian church. The cohesiveness of Christianity meant that slaves could attend meetings in-house churches along 12 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.96-97) 13 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.7) 14 Labahn, Michael, and Zangenberg Jürgen. Christians as a Religious Minority in a Multicultural City: Modes of Interaction and Identity Formation in Early Imperial Rome . London: T Clark International, 2004. (pg.vii) 5 with their owners, and the socioeconomic differences between them would not exist in the new 15 religion. All would be equal in death” . This attracted individuals to Christianity, the notion that in this culture, their gender or wealth or freedom would be irrelevant, and that Christianity promises an even judgment and afterlife regardless of their wealth or status on Earth. In the Passio , Perpetua is in prison with two Christian slaves, Felicity and Revocatus. For them, “Christianity could promise salvation to slaves that did not privilege the slave owners over their lives” 16. This sense of equality under Christianity enabled those enslaved to feel some sort of control of their lives and religion in the grander scheme, their owners could not control their fate and lives as Christians. For Perpetua, the attraction to Christianity is not dissimilar to that of slaves in the Empire. Christianity would place her control of her own life outside of society or the paterfamilias she was under. Being a Christian allowed her as a woman to present and carry herself as an equal among other Christians and Romans. All things considered, gender, class, and religion were the largest impacts for both women and minorities in Roman Society, and in part, drove their attraction to Christianity. How a woman in the Empire was positioned in society, as in Perpetua’s case, fundamentally differs their lives from those others in society of lower classes or enslaved, but through Christianity, a common and even dialogue could exist between between women and slaves, and those on the fringes of society, an idea so radical in Rome that it was persecuted. 15 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.129) 16 Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire . Oxford University Press, 2018. (pg.129) 6 Bibliography Bauman, Richard A. Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. 2016. Boatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, and Richard J. A. Talbert. “The Romans: From Village to Empire”, Second ed., Oxford University Press, 2004. Labahn, Michael, and Zangenberg Jürgen. Christians as a Religious Minority in a Multicultural City: Modes of Interaction and Identity Formation in Early Imperial Rome. London: T Clark International, 2004. Rea, Jennifer A., and Liz Clarke. Perpetua's Journey: Faith, Gender, & Power in the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, 2018.