Syllabus/Introductions

25 Aug. - Syllabus/Introductions ● All stereotypical images we have of Native Americans are derived from Hollywood ● Class Information: ○ Questions are strongly encouraged ■ Ask on the chat ○ Loose on the time ■ Make him aware of the end of class (9:15) ● Grading ○ Attendance - 100 ○ Book Exam Essays - 300 (x3) ○ Midterm Exam - 100 (notes are ok) ■ Exams follow the lectures more than the notes ○ Final Exam - 100 (notes are ok) ■ (out of 600) ■ A is 540 points and up ● Final Exam: Thursday 10th December, 8-10am ● Exams: question, essay exams (5 paragraphs covering different inner-topics) ○ Midterm: Native American History before the American Revolution 27 Aug. - Savages v. Civilization ● Ways of the “Knowing World” ○ Cultural Structures of Native American Society: Differed from Europeans ■ Linear vs. Cyclical ● Seasons ● Native timekeeping ○ Written vs. Oral ○ Individualism vs. the group (Chritianity making Westerners individualistic) ■ Origin of western culture individualism ■ Why place the group above oneself? ○ Land as a commodity v. land as animate/sacred ■ Sanctified westerners ■ Participant Native Americans ■ Westerners are sanctified on Earth and set as its caretakers, to Native Americans land is part of them and is God himself ○ Kinship ■ European/Western ■ Native American ● European View of Native Americans ○ Made first contact with Africa, India, and Asian cultures ■ Already have an expectation of what they would be like ○ Indians lacked?: ■ Religion ● Westerners believe they are better because of God ● Native Americans “lack” a concrete religion ● Native American nations believe in all one-powerful god, but believe that other gods also exist ● A church was expected by Westerners, and when they found no obvious one they made assumptions ■ Agriculture ● Assume that Native Americans have no sound agriculture ● Medicinal plants ● The perceptions of Native Americans in the woods, nearly naked, hunting deer with spears sticks ■ Government ● Everything is different from western government ■ Social Evolution and Structure ■ Cannibals ● Fear of Westerners that they would be eaten by them ● No real evidence of regular cannibalism ○ Not a new idea: ■ Crusades ● Europe is expanded within itself ■ Voyages of Discovery ● Portugal, Spain, Italy explore ○ Compares to many other people ■ First descriptor: the colour of one's skin ● Persistence of View Remarkable ○ Still if you ask if Native Americans are as technologically enabled as the rest of US Society, many will still think or assume no ○ Policy: Assimilation ■ Native Americans were supposed to assimilate ■ This has been resisted up until recent times ■ Assimilation was antiquated before it even became legal policy ○ Myths codified in our consciousness ■ Noble Savage ● The Native American who is honest and trustworthy ■ Vanishing American Indians of the 19th centuries ● Between deaths and mixing with Westerners, the culture was disappearing ■ Stereotypes ● “They are lazy” ○ Latinx are also lazy, African Americans are lazy and addicts, these stereotypes exist everywhere ○ Idealized Environmentalists ■ Native Americans are able to travel the woods, and are one with nature, they live completely peacefully with their surroundings ■ “The Crying Indian” commercial for anti-pollution efforts ○ Academica Scholarship (has put American Indians in a box) ■ American textbooks (only during Western Expansion, not a focus) ■ History classes ■ Books and articles ○ We don’t think about Native Americans past the 1800s because it becomes unknown and uncomfortable to most ● Ethnohistory and Social History ○ Why was there a change in historical view in the 1960s? ■ The Civil Rights movement ■ Women were peripheral to “real history”, same as Native Americans and other minorities ■ People started studying them and understood that their stories needed to be told ■ Television and the media made the Civil Rights movement impactful ■ Ethnohistory - multiple perspectives from different fields of study to collaborate to create a whole historical account ○ A new diverse approach ○ Problems with this approach ■ An example of the problem: Native American Origins? ■ Archaeologists and Anthropologists ● What do they do? ● Study of these cultures, but from a very Western perspective ■ Lakota Origins ● Studies of arch/antho show them coming through the Bering Strait, however, their own origin stories have them understanding they emerged from the Black Hill ○ Consequences of Disparate Beliefs: Very Real ● How can we better understand Native American History? ○ Native Perspective ■ Kinship and reciprocity ● The cornerstones of Native society ■ Oral society ■ Perception of geography and nature ■ Perception of time ○ Sources ■ Oral histories? ■ Give their oral history and accounts the same legitimacy as we do with written Western historical records/accounts ○ End Anachronism of Native Americans as people of the past ■ We HAVE to stop thinking of Native Americans as living in their tipis and with bows and arrows ■ We HAVE to think of them as astronauts, and lawyers, and professors 1 Sep. - Early Cultures ● Early Hunting Cultures: ○ Why did humans hunt? ■ Early studies concerning hunting viewed it negatively, why? ■ How effective was hunting? ■ Why did agriculture develop? ● Western Cultures are deemed better off than hunting societies because of their economies based on agriculture ● Hunting was a fast and efficient way of supporting a community, which allowed for more time for socialization and time in the community ● ○ Origins of Native Americans: Native Views ■ Originated across North American Continent ○ Origins of Native Americans: Academic View ■ Beringia (Bering Strait Theory) ○ Three Periods of the Land bridge ■ 40,000 BCE ■ 26,000-23,000 BCE ■ 12,000-9,000 BCE ● First Great Plains Hunters? ○ Clovis Culture, 10,000-9,500 BCE ○ New tool kit ■ Fluted points ○ Hunted Mammoth ○ How do we know they actually hunted and not scavenged? ○ Mammoth extinct in 400 years, from hunting? ● Pleistocene Extinction in North America ○ Distinct societies after 9,000 BCE: End of Mono-Environments ■ Pleistocene Extinction debate ● Climate Change, tall to short grasses ○ Animals become smaller as the vegetation is lessened ● Large prey died off ○ Large predator die off ● Role of men in society? ● Bison changed ■ More balanced economy ■ Sexual Division of Labor ● Gradual change that took place over centuries ● More focus is put on gathering as animals/hunting becomes a less viable option ● Women are the natural choice to gather because they are able to bring/carry the children with them ○ With hunting, can’t really bring the kids or leave them at home ■ Environment altered ● Diverse Ecosystems led to Diverse Cultures ○ Lindenmeir → 8,800 BCE ■ Northern Colorado trading site ● Obsidian ○ Sharp edges ■ Common trend in North America ● Copper ● Marine Shells ● Burial sites ○ Trade existed BEFORE Westerners arrived ■ Folsom Complex → 8,500 - 5,000 BCE ● Hunted bison antiques ● Republican River site - 300 slain (in one go) ○ Bison pound, into a large enclosure, use projectile weapons ● Nomadic peoples ● Megadrougt (5,000-2,500 BCE) ○ Bison antiquus extinct ■ Humans vacate the Southern Plains ■ Desert Culture emerged ○ Mummy Cave Culture (3,500-3,200 BCE) ■ Side notched atlatl ■ Definitive evidence of use ○ Plains take modern characteristics (0 CE) ■ Diverse economies emerge: fewer resources ■ Agriculture near water (maize from Mexico) ● CORNS, BEANS, SQUASH (3 sisters) ■ On plains hunters and gathers dominate ● Marginal existence ● Small groups ○ Meetings for large projects probable ● Innovations ○ Spear points ○ Buffalo Jumps (500 BCE) ■ Lance Creek ■ Head-Smashed-In ■ Painted Rock ○ Most Jumps were in the Northern Plains: ■ Montana - 17 ■ Alberta - 15 ■ Wyoming - 5 ■ Idaho - 1 to 3 ? ■ Saskatchewan - 2 ■ North Dakota - 1 ■ Colorado - 1 ■ Texas - 1 ■ Oklahoma - 1 ? ○ Surrounds ○ Next major innovation, the horse! 3 Sep. - When Native Americans and Europeans Met ● Mississippian Cultures: the contrast (before Europeans) ○ Hierarchical ■ The Great Sun (leader of the group) ○ Massive trade and agricultural systems ○ Large populations in cities ■ Cahokia at least 30,000 people ○ Ended by drought and conflict ○ Descendants: Caddo, Natchez, more… ■ That will be found by future people going to the West ● Europe and the World before the Middle (Dark) Ages ○ Europe is globally weak (and isolated), 400-1,100 CE ■ Islamic Empire ● Architecture ● Philosophy ● Literacy and Greek Classics ● Developing technologies ■ China ● Emerging empire ● Developing technologies ○ High Middle Ages, 1,100-1,300 CE ■ Impulses for European Expansion ● The Crusades’ Legacy: ○ Colonial empires worked ○ Profit in staple cash crops ○ Slavery profitable ● Economic competition ○ Nation states are starting to emerge ● Trade routes → trade cities ○ Profitable endeavours to set up trade routes ○ Once people had experienced these goods, they were unable to go without (i.e. tea, cinnamon, etc.) ○ Crisis and Competition Drive Innovation in Europe ■ Late Middle-Ages, 1300-1500 CE ● Agricultural advancements: ○ Black Plague brings about a sense of advancement and made the land less populated, for better agriculture ■ More land for everyone ■ 40 acres a family to be tended ○ Horse collar and oxen yolk ● Universities: ○ Granada-Moors (Muslim/Islam group) ○ The Spanish were pushing out the Moors from Africa to reclaim their land, they took access to what was left behind, including Universities and large schools ○ Maps are made available (of the Middle East and Africa, and they feel compelled to travel to these destinations) ● Economic Dependence on trade ○ Competition ■ Military: steel (more durable), crossbow (no formal training, shook the aristocracy and leaders because of how easy it was to use), artillery, rudimentary firearms ■ Maritime: astrolabe and sextant (explorers were able to go into the seas and explore, not just hugging the coast), Caravel and Carrack ships ● By 1520, Europe was a world leader in both the military and naval, this gives them an advantage when it comes to exploration (but Europe isn’t yet flexing its muscles) ○ Age of “Discovery” (1400-1650 CE) ■ Early Lessons of Explorations ● Monetary investment as a new economic strategy ● Precious metals had to fuel European wealth ■ Columbus Expedition: Not as unique as History Portrayal ● Part of a long European history of exploration ■ Dominant ideology of European expansion: European Superiority ● Foundation of that superiority was Christianity ○ European Christians were compelled by the 3 G’s (God, Gold, Glory) and felt as though they could still “save” those in the New World ● Papal Bulls (decrees/charters issued by the Pope): ○ Pope Nicholas v. Romanus Pontifex (8 January, 1455) ■ Go forth Europe, and conquer all the lands where all the people are not Chrisitian, kill if needed ○ Pope Alexander VI: Inter Caetera (3 May, 1493) ■ After discovery of Americas, all of you from Spain and Portugal go and subdue/capture the land in the name of Christ (Doctrine of Discovery) ● Columbus was from Spain (not Italy) ○ He was from Catalonia so he led Isabella/Ferdinand to believe that he was Italian so that they would let him lead ○ Plus Italians are assumed to be good sailors ○ Cultural Encounters ■ Incommensurability (lasts for a short period of time) ● When two fundamentally different cultures that meet each other, they literally do not understand anything at all about them or their intentions, they are literally overwhelmed ■ European gods? ● No, Europeans constructed this idea and assumed that the Natives were in awe of them and their advanced way ○ Comes from Cortez was Moctazuma, when the Aztec wonder if Cortez was Quezaquatl coming for them (as told in their stories/prophecies) ○ “Exploration of the Dark Continent” ○ All the natives would shy away of fire in horror because it's magic (shown from Hollywood perceptions) ■ European Perception of Trade ● Natives are not intelligent ● Europeans have an idea of what the “savages” would be like ■ Reality of Manhattan Island, use of trade goods ● The Island was traded for $24 worth of “goods” ○ Blankets (colored and desired for religious ceremonies), ax heads, exciting/new offerings ● Manhattan was then an island off of the coast that nothing living on except for Malaria, they never went there or used it, for them, these beads/good were worth the funds for them ■ Native American shifted their desire for European goods ○ The Columbian Exchange (Crosby) ■ Europeans (brought): ● Animals (feral hogs, in the South) ● Humans ● Weeds and Plants ○ Invasive species ○ California example (found that pollen brought from Europeans to Spanish Adobe Missions, overtime it was clear that over 90% of the plants in California currently are not native to the state) ■ Native Americans: ● Corn ● Beans ● Bison (meat,hides,etc.) ■ DISEASE ● Smallpox ○ Most commonly known to be devastating ● Measles ● Typhoid ● Because of their non-exposure, populations were devastated (estimated as high at 90% were eliminated from disease) ○ Devastating impacts, that cannot be fully understood ● The Columbian Exchange (Aztec example) ○ Conquest of the Aztecs → 2,000 defeat over 5 million ■ Tenochtitlan with 200,000 people, same size as Paris and Venice ■ Beautiful, Europeans were in awe ○ Traditional answer of defeat with the Aztec God ■ Technology, guns and horses and dogs ■ Exploited factions (found the Aztecs enemies and worked with them) ■ MOSTLY DISEASE !! ● In 1519, Cortez tried to take over and nearly died ● In 1522, Cortez came back and the Aztecs were ruined by disease, and much easier to conquer (it still takes him months) ● When they finally break through into the cities/courtyards, they find that there are so,so many bodies that they are piled on the streets and are unable to walk without them ○ Virgin soil epidemics ■ Fewer domesticated animals in the Americas ■ Migration from Beringia ■ Effects of epidemics: ● Hispaniola Population: ○ Pre-Columbus = 5 million ○ 1620 = 720,000 ○ No natives of that bloodline are left alive on the Carribean Islands ○ Native American Populations ■ Pre Columbian-populations: How many people? ● Debated since 1960 ● Before 1960, scholars believed 900,000 in NA and 10-12 million in the entire hemisphere ● After 1960 - 12 million for NA, 130 million in hemisphere ● Currently - 7 to 10 million for NA, 50-60 million in the hemisphere ■ The consequences ● Perception of superiority! ● Not European might, but rather their diseases and animals that conquered the Americas ● Led to the importation of slaves 8 Sep. - The Spanish and Native Southwest: New Mexico ● The Pueblo Nation: From Coronado to the Pueblo Revolt ○ Descendants of Anasazi ○ Adobe dwellings ○ Balanced Culture: ■ Politically, economically, socially ○ Trade with Apache (modern day Texas) ■ Vastly different cultures/living conditions ■ Were able to fill each other’s needs ● Francisco Coronado Expedition (February 23, 1540) ○ 400 men at arms, 1,500 Native “Allies”, friars ○ Pueblo of Hawikuh (July 1540) ■ Bad timing, summer solstice ■ Zuni prepared ■ Requerimiento read by Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, two friars and a notary ● You have to read this to any Native Americans to let them know that they are now subject to the Crown of Spain ● If you accept this and obey us, you will be given christianity to save you (for free) ■ Women, children, old evacuated ■ Horses new creatures ■ Cornmeal ceremony ■ Conflict ■ God, glory, gold ○ Coronado’s motivation: Cabeza de Vaca, Esteven, and Cibiola ● Coronado after Hawikuh Pueblo ○ Coronado moved on after Zuni village ■ “Cibola is over the next hill!” ■ Corn, melons, a big hole! ■ Pecos ● Ysopet-Wichita; Turk-Pawnee ○ Captured or Traded ○ Truk-Quivira ○ Wait for spring ○ Relations deteriorate ■ Took over Alcanfar - Tiwa Pueblo ■ Indian economy → stressed; women raped ■ Tiwa attack horses - intelligent resistance ■ Spanish response ● Kill and take over the village ○ Southern Plains ■ Find Quivira (Coronado loses it and goes home) ■ Bad day for Turk (killed) ○ Quiet period ■ Spanish are gone until 1598 → rumors of gold spread again ■ Luckily, the Natives are left alone for some time when the Spanish take Mexico ● Don Jaun de Onate to New Mexico (1598) ○ Pueblos are friendly: Why? ■ They are fearful, and do not want to be met with violence ○ Acoma 1599 ■ Sky City (oldest two in North America, early 1200s) ■ Onate feared a plot (restricts Native movements) ■ His nephew, Juan de Zaldivar, demanded food ● Pueblo tell him in three days that they will have the food ● Zaldivar shows up in 3 days with twelve friends ○ Zaldivar sees an elderly woman holding a turkey, takes the turkey and shoves her to the ground ■ Rejects kinship, and good relations ○ Zaldivar and all twelve others are killed ■ Onate attacks Acama with his fully force ■ Pueblo are evacuating people out of the backdoors ● Kills 800 of the 1,300 fighting me ■ Response by Onate ● 800 killed, 580 enslaved, 4,700 escaped ● Captives made an example ○ Takes 80 men, who he believes instigated the “rebellion”/conflict, forces everyone he can to watch, he cuts off all of their left feet (and then are forced to live as a “cripple” for the rest of their lives), two visitors of Hopi people have their arms cut off to send a message to their own people (they need their feet to walk back) ○ When Coronado is taken back to the Spanish, he is tried for crimes against humanity by their royal courts ● Repression of the Pueblo People ○ Encomienda System ■ Brought over from Spain - Reconquista ■ Labor Grants ■ Labor hereditary ● Repartmiento de indios - (regulations) ○ Roads and bridges ● Abuses ○ Poor pay or none at all ○ Excessive work beyond tribute ○ Beatings ○ Sexual assaults ○ Franciscan Priests ■ Earlier Debates over the Indian’s “Nature” ● Pope Paul III, 1537 - “truly men/natives are people” ■ Sepulveda (Humanist) vs. Bartolome de la Casas (Dominican) ● New Laws, 1542 ● Black Legend ■ Priest's Goal → conversion ■ Subtle ● Baptism ■ Coercion ● Seized kivas ● Outlawed dances ● Destroyed items ■ Consequences for the Pueblo ● Pueblo source of life underground → Christian source where? ● The Land ● The individual vs. the community ● The Pueblo Revolt, 1680 ○ Population declines: ■ 1540 → 250,000 ■ 1581 → 130,000 ■ 1600 → 60,000 ■ 1640 → 38,000 ■ 1680 → 17,000 ■ 1706 → 6,440 ○ Previous revolts: 1632, 1639-40, 1644, and 1647 ■ Revolts could not be sustained ■ Locally within specific cities or two ○ Environmental Problems, 1660-1680 ■ Drought and higher temperatures ■ Raids intensified ○ Pueblos turn to old religions → failure of christianity ○ Franciscans punished Pueblo religious leaders severely ■ Lashings, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40 ● Pope’ from San Juan Pueblo ○ Pope’s goals ■ Abandon everything Spanish ● Language, crops ● Selective rejection ● Christianity ○ Problems he faced, logistical, and cultural? ○ Apaches: Enemy or Ally? ○ Word gets out: ■ August 10, 1680, a day early ■ First Stage ■ Second Stage ■ Results ● Horses (trade with the Apache, gain a lot of them) ● Pueblo civilizations again go into their own city-states and loose the alliances/whole group ● Spanish Return, 1692 ○ Diego de Vargas ○ Santa Fe, 1693 ○ Reconquest ○ Consequences for Pueblos: ■ Population decline ■ Communities decline ● Protection needed (from the Apache) ■ Encomienda ended, less exploitative ■ Land grants ■ Public defender in Spanish Courts ■ Religious Freedom, to an extent 10 Sep. - Native-English Encounters: Virginia ● Chesapeake Bay, Virginia ○ Algonquian (different dialects of the same) Language ○ Monacan, Mahicans, Chesapeakes, Kiskiacks, … ○ Economies were diversified ● The Kiskiacks and the Spanish ○ Spanish would capture people to sell into slavery in the Carribean to work the sugar cane fields ○ 1561 Capture of “Don Luis” ■ His evolution ■ His plea, was it real or not? ● Wants to go back and start a mission in Virginia to save ■ The return of “Don Luis” → 1570 ■ The attack ● Don Luis has reverted back to his native ways ● Kill all 8 of the priest members ■ Retaliation by Menedez, looks for the mission/finds 8 dead priests ● Capture Native leaders, take to the ship ○ Unless they return the boy, they will kill all the leaders ○ Return the boy, kill the leaders, throw them overboard ● Betrayals - sound familiar? ■ “Don Luis” His future? ● Was he the uncle of Powhatan? ● Opechancanough (He whose soul is white), was he the half brother of Powhatan? ● Powhatan confederacy ○ Dr.Mean’s uncle voiced Powhatan in the disney Pocahontas, receives checks for viewing/royalties ○ The Powhatan Confederacy - Chiefdom ■ Fromationg → 1572-1607 ■ Population of 13,000 people in 31 tribes ■ Method of control ■ District chiefs → Opechancanough ■ Stronger, diversified, economies 15 Sep. - Native-English Encounters: Virginia (Continued) ● Early attempts to colonize Virginia by the English ○ Pircary and Sir Francis Drake ■ Recognized sSpanish system ○ Sir Walter Raleigh ■ Queen Elizabeth’s favorite “friend” ■ Her myth ○ First attempt 1585 ○ Roanoke ■ 1587 in North Carolina ■ Re-supply delayed - Spanish Armada ■ Abandoned by 1588 → why? ○ King James I ■ Virginia JSC’s land grant ■ Settlers: ● Minters ● Jewelers ● Soldiers ● NO famers! ○ Jamestown, 1607 ■ Location ■ 105 settlers, 38 survive the first year ■ Their strength is measured ■ Colony in disarray ■ Powhatan wants to help for trade (attacked) ● Rational strategy ● English Romantic response ■ John Smith captured ● Powhatan’s view of the English ● Pocahontas (13)- her story ■ Fire in Jamestown ● Aid is given (protectorate) ■ English violations ● Pamunkeys ● Violence ○ War in 1609 ■ Opechancanough struck ■ New settlers arrive ■ Pcahontas captured (1613) ■ Peace (1914) with marriage (with John Rolfe) ■ Death of Pocahontas (1617) ● She goes to England, social life (meets Queen), dies of disease ○ Powhatan Dies, Opechancanough new leader ■ Alliance falls apart ■ March, 1622 → surprise attack ● 347 slain ■ 1622-1632, War ● Assassination attempt ● Peace ● English population growth’ ■ 1944-1946, war renewed ● Surprise attack: almost 500 dead ● English too entrenched ● Opechancanough’s capture ○ Cannot walk and is blind ○ Three soldiers are to watch him, while officers discuss what to do with him inside ○ The soldiers harass him, he ignores them, the three soldiers are annoyed and eventually shoot him ○ Jamestown Society ■ Dependent on tobacco ■ What does that economy need? ■ Health poor ● “Meatgrinder” for colonists ● ⅔ casualty rate ■ Indentured Servants ● Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676 ■ Who will labor now? → in the assignments section → 2 hour time limit → available at midnight on 16th (Wednesday) until midnight of the 17th (Thursday) → a question for the text (vague-ish) → 5 paragraphs (intro, 3 bodies, conclusion) → work with a thesis → no class on Thursday 22 Sept. Native-English Encounters (New England) ● Native New England Before Contact ○ Small Algonquian Villages: ■ Wampanoag, Masschusett, Hipmunk, Pennacook, Pensobott ○ Characteristics of these populations: ■ Matrilineal ■ Matrilocal ■ Sachems=Chiefs ■ Kinship ■ Fidelity in marriage ■ Some polygamy, but monogamy the norm ■ Warfare common ○ First Contacts ■ Early Trade → Romantic and Rational ■ Slaving expeditions ■ 1614-24 captured Squanto ● Escape to New England ■ 1617 - Epidemic ■ 1619 - Return to Patuxet ■ Adoption → Wampanoags at Pokanoket ● Samoset, “Greeting Englishmen, do you have any beer?” ● Trade with English ● The Mayflower, 1620: Massachusetts Bay Colony, 1629 ○ Harsh winter ○ Masssoit → Chief of Wampanoags ○ Allegiance ■ Narragansett - personal prestige ■ Protection of colony ○ Lose regional power (ceded lands) ○ Massasoit dies → Wamsutta, 1662 ■ Not tolerant ■ Died from? (poisoned) ● Metacom (King Philip), 1663 ○ Demographic changes in New England ○ Economic changes ○ English repression ○ Metacom tired ○ 1671-1675, organization ○ 1675 hangings ○ June 20, 1675 → King Philip’s War began ● King Philip’s War (20 June, 1675-76) ○ Dartmouth and middleborough sacked, and many others ○ Christian Indians (internment camps on Deer Island) ■ ⅔ will die with no food/water ■ They sell the survivors into slavery in the Caribbean ○ The first year for ehwar: ○ 52 of 90 settlements destroyed from Rhode Island to Maine ■ The tide turned ■ Metacom’s death ● 12 August, 1676 ■ English reaction: ● Trophy head ● Remains on a post in Boston for over 20 years ○ Results of the War: ■ English: ● 2,000 dead, 1,200 houses destroyed, head of cattle killed ■ Indians: ● 3,000 dead ● Narragansett and Wampanoags almost exterminated ● Retreat to Canada ■ Bitter hatred for decades ■ Metamora: The Last of the Wampanoags ● John August Stone ● 12-15-1829 (Edwin Forrest stars) Today ● French Colonialism: Different in North America ○ Exclusively extractice colonization in North America ○ Originally fished and traded near Newfoundland since the 1300s ○ Early French Exploration: ■ Latecomers compared to the Spanish ■ Giovanni de Verraano, 1524 ■ Northwest Passage ■ King Francis I ● “The sun shines on me just as it does on them” ● Jacques Cartier ○ 1534 → he sailed to the “New World” ■ Gold Northwest Passage ■ Abenaki and Micmac (relationship?) ○ Planted 10 meter cross: “Long live the King of France” ■ Iroquois are not pleased with him ○ Abduction of the Iroquois ■ Chief's two sons (to be shown off in Europe) ■ Returned them ● Cartier’s Second Voyage (1535-36) ○ St. Lawrence River ■ Many tribes ○ Reached Stadacona, Iroquois ■ Wintered here ○ Hochelaga (Montreal) ■ Please heal the sick! ○ French Illness ■ Scurvy: healed by the Natives ○ Abduction on return voyage: ■ Donnaconna taken ■ Tale of “Kingdom of Saguenay” to the north ● Full of treasures! ■ No settlements in the next few voyages ● Cartier and Jean-François de la Roque (1541) ○ Goal now is the “Kingdom of Saguenay” ○ Colonists? ■ Stadacona reacts ■ 35 Frenchmen killed ■ Starved the winter of ‘41-42 ■ Abandoned in 1543 ○ Canada ignored ■ Brazil and Florida are considered failures ○ Return for Furs after 1581 ○ Samuel de Champlain (Quebec 1608) ■ 20 years later → still only 107 Frenchmen in Quebec ● The Middle Ground: The Native-French Relationship ○ What is the “Middle Ground”? ■ Founded on the desire for trade ■ Conversation of agreed upon misunderstandings ● Even though the French and natives don’t and will never fully understand one another, they have enough in common where they can do business and understand kinship relations ● Needed constant attention ● French colonists v. French officials ○ Realities are very different ■ Common meanings at cultural intersections ○ Alliance: ■ Mutual dependence against Iroquois ■ Military balance is necessary ■ Begin to change one another ○ Kinship was KEY → Fathers and Children ■ Great Father ■ Misunderstanding of “Father”: ● French → Paternalism ● Algonquian → generous, mediator, protector ● Example of the Middle ground (1706 Quarrel) ○ Fort Pontchartrain: Ottawa, Miami, Wyandot, French ■ Dead: 3 French, 30 Ottawa, 50 Miami, unknown number of Huron ○ Are the Ottowas to blame: they are cut off from French trade ■ How should a “Father” act? ■ Justice? Whose perspective? Personal retribution or recompense? ○ Ottawa's offer pelts ■ French decline, they want quilty parties ■ Misunderstandings again: ● Covering dead to Ottawa ● Prisoners to French ■ Le Pesant at Fort Detroit (interpretations) ● Huron and Miami want him killed ● To Ottawa that would be an act of war ○ French Commander’s compromise ■ Le Pesant “escapes” ○ Everyone appeased except Miami ■ 3 French settlers and a cow killed ■ Peace restored ○ Alliance solidified in the 18th century ■ Leaders - structure of alliance ■ Success rested on faction leaders ○ French are troubled by alliance structures ■ Successful nonetheless (Exam question, how do the Spanish interact with Natives (need an example)) Native-French Fur Trade in North America ● French Desire for Trade: $$ ○ Growing demand for furs ■ Beaver most in demand ■ Deer ○ Early control by Native Americans ■ Cost ■ Time ■ Amount ■ Place ○ Alliances with the French ■ Ottawa ■ Ojibwa ■ Menminee ■ Potawatomi ■ Fox ■ Huron- middlemen ● Control ● Power ■ Many more ● French Traders arrive: Courier-de-Bois ○ Benefits for tribes ○ Dangers ○ Importance of indian women ■ Kinship connections to Native Nations ● Obligations ■ Many skills ■ Power of women changed ● Economic ● Social ■ Negative effects of escalation of fur trade ● Focus on fur ● Individualism over communalism ○ Young men ○ Skills ○ Rituals ● Land ● Alcohol ○ Extremely problematic: ■ Women/kids would flee ■ Men could kill their families in rage ● Dependency ● The Beaver Wars (1630-1680) ○ Iroquois confederacy vs. Huron, et.al. ○ Etienne Brule, 1611 ■ WAR IN EUROPE (1627-1632), blockade in 1629 ● His end in 1633 ○ Trade triangle of Iroquois: Advantage ○ Huron problems ■ Division ■ Diseases (1635-40) they lose over half of their tribe, population is down to less than 10,000 ○ Economic danger → beaver disappearing ■ Shipment of pelts in 1645 ● 2 vessels → 20,000 pounds of pelts ○ Disease is a social and political danger for all ○ Iroquois Solution (a new kind of war) ■ Gain hunting territory ■ Become middlemen ■ Mourning wars (disease ● Mass adoptions ● Iroquois Battle Evolution: Ethnic Cleansing ○ Ethnogenesis ○ Wento, 1638-39 ○ Sought trade with French, 1641 ■ French couldn’t why? ○ Blockade the St.Lawrence ○ 1,000 into Huron territory, 1648 ■ Fresh arms and ammunition ■ Thousands killed and captured ■ Pursued survivors to the west: why? ○ Petun (Tobacco people), 1650 ○ Neutrals, 1651-53 ○ Erie, 1654-56 ○ Susquehawk /Conestoga (1663-77) ■ Victory from trade Lecture Notes (September 30th) ● The French and Indian Wars, 1689-1763 ○ King William's War, 1689-1701 ■ French and Iroquois war embroiled the English ■ Fighting between French and English ended in 1697, but Iroquois and French fight until 1701 ○ Queen Anne’s War, 1702-1713 ■ Iroquois neutral ■ Fighting in South and Massachusetts ■ Deerfield in Mass. ○ The Ohio River Valley control is disputer ■ English, French, and Iriquois claims ● Major George Washington → 1753 to Ohio ○ Virginia claims to Ohio ■ GW asks the French to leave, they don’t ○ Skirmish near Pittsburgh ○ Iroquois find small French party, bring GW ■ The end of Joseph Coilon de Jumonville ● War is inevitable ○ Odds favored the English at outbreak of hostilities ● General Braddock defeated at Monongahela River, 1755 ○ Alhanase, a Wyandot chief from Lorette Canada led the victors after Captain Daneil Lienard de Beaujeu was killed very early in the fighting ■ 254 French, 600 Natives ○ Braddock mortally wounded, 456 killed outright, 422 wounded ■ 1,300 in advance, 900 in the rear ○ Result of the defeat → Delaware and Shawnee attack British frontier settlements in Pennsylvania and Virginia ■ Fort William Henry, 1757 ● The Iroquois (during this period) ○ Neutral early on in the fighting ○ Divided ○ England turned the tide, 1758: ■ Blockade ● Presents stopped ● Supplies stopped ■ Indian concerns other the war ■ Disease: Smallpox in the Great Lakes Region ○ 1759 → The English triumph ■ Capture Fort Niagara and Quebec ■ Occupy Montreal and later Fort Detroit ■ Gain control of the Ohio river Valley ○ Leads to increased Factionalism in the tribes ● English are the New “Father” ○ Council at Fort Detroit, 1761 → Sir William Johnson ■ Iroquois, Wyandot, Delaware, Shawnee, Mohican, Kickapoo, Miami, Ojibwe, Mingo, Ottawa, and potawatomi ■ Wyandot new “keepers of the council fire” ■ Johnson sought to maintain old alliance with the British in control ○ The end of the Middle Ground? ■ Jeffrey Amherst is now in charge ■ Trade triangle gone for many tribes ● English are there only trading partner ● How the Middle Ground was Lost ○ A change in politics: Sir Jeffrey Amherst ■ Conquered nations ■ No presents, raise prices, limit powder ○ He also demanded: ■ Captives ■ Forts ■ British traders free passage ○ British also failed Kinshop in other ways ■ Not mediating disputes ■ Not generous ■ Famine and epidemics ignored ■ Leads to the rise of “Pontiac’s Rebellion” ● Pontiac: Ottawa War Chief ○ Influenced by religious prophet Neolin: Delaware ■ Give up european goods and alcohol ■ New ceremonies shown Neolin ■ Will regain power and autonomy ■ Moral reform, guilt:syncretism ■ Does not advocate for military action ○ Pontiac’s claim: French will return and English will go away if they go to war ○ Both messages were creations of the Middle Ground ● Pontiac’s War ○ Three areas of conflict: ■ Great Lakes Region ● Ottawa, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Huron from Canada ■ Eastern Illinois ● Miam, Weas, Kickapoo, Mascoutens, Piankashaws ■ Ohio Country ● Delaware (Lenape), Shawnee, Mingo, Huron from west ○ Fort Detroit attacked, April 27, 1763 by Great Lakes tribes ■ Tried tickery but failed, siege commenced ■ Two victories for Pontiac but the fort never fell ■ Siege lifted October 31, 1763 ○ Regional attacks (13 first, 8 destroyed) ■ First Sandusky ● Trickery works; all killed immediately but the commander is later ritually killed ■ Fort Michilimackinac strategy ● Smuggled the hatchets in with the women, they kid them in piles of wood and such, while playing a game the Natives threw a ball over the fence, and asked if they could come get the ball from inside the Fort, allowed in, Natives kill the guards and storm inside the Fort ■ English squatters → Wyoming, Pennsylvania ○ Brutal War ■ Torture and killing of diplomatic mission ● 8 British soldiers killed ● Native perspective → common diplomacy ■ Race War ● The Paxton Boys story in Pennsylvania ○ Peaceful Susquehannocks killed in Lancaster, PA ● Franklin County massacre of teacher and 10 children by 4 Delaware warriors ■ Germ warfare → genocide vs. ethnic cleansing ● Fort Pitt ■ The war peters out quickly after 1764 ● Key forts remained British: Detroit, Pitt, Niagara ● Other Indian responsibilities ● French not coming back ● Results in a stalemate ■ 450 British soldiers killed ■ 2,000 settlers killed or captured ■ 4,000 PA refugees ■ 200 Native Americans killed ○ British expeditions in 1764 sign treaties of peace ● The Death of Pontiac ○ English view of Pontiac ○ Evolution from war leader to chief ○ 1765 peace agreement: ■ Return of prisoners ■ French Forts ■ Free Passage ○ Leadership is tenuous ○ Oottawa reject him ○ Violence, 1766 ○ Death ○ Treaty of Paris ■ English gains: Canada and Ohio RV ■ Role of “father” → Gage and Johnson ■ Trade regulated ■ Iroquois role: Mediator ■ Presents now in budget ■ Medal Chiefs ■ Proclamation of 1763 ○ Renewal of the Middle Ground ■ Financial burden ■ Ignorant of Indian ways