Loss of the East

Lecture 9: Loss of the East ● The American Revolution (Preceded) ○ The Proclamation Line (1763) ○ Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) ■ Sir William Johnson ■ Land ceded by Iroquois in Kentucky, Pennsylvania, West Virginia ■ Shawnee, Lenape (Delaware), and Cherokee territory ■ Iroquois lose prestige in the west → betrayal ■ Again: It saved their own Southern lands ○ Settlers bring conflict ● The American Revolution: It was a war for independence, but for whom? ○ Native American Debate: Side with whom? Or anyone? ○ Strategies ■ Pressure to be dealt with from all sides ■ Divisions: ● Oneidas and Tuscaroras (Americans) ● Mohawks, Onondages, Cayugas, and Senecas (British) ■ Why side with the British? ■ Why side with the Americans? ■ The American Revolution → A Disaster for Native Americans ● Cherokee → land ● Iroquois → division, land ● Delaware, Shawnee → betrayal ● New England → land and power of “presence” ● After the Revolution ○ American Viewpoint → Treaty of Paris ■ Great Britain surrendered all land, including Indian land ■ Defeated Nations → what that meant ■ Pattern? French and Indian War ○ The American Economy ■ Bankrupt ■ Debt to soldiers (land ■ Treaties to obtain land ● Fort Stanwix, James Duane (1784) ○ Middle ground? ○ Ceded lands west of New York and Pennsylvania (reservation in New York) ● Fort McIntosh, Fort Finney (bribery and intimidation) ■ Change in Policy? ● Problem? ○ Complaints might mean costly war ○ Need for land still exists ● Answer ○ Northwest Ordinance of 1787 ○ Political power with the US (but still need consent to obtain lands) ○ Set up expansion guidelines for US ● Henry Knox → Secretary of War ○ Just negotiations or just war? ○ George Washington was known to the Iriquois as the “Burner of Land” ○ The “White Man’s Burden” to bring civilization/chrisitanity to the “savage” populations ○ Will the NW Ordinance Work? ■ “In theory it is a good idea” ■ Practicality of Indian Policy: ● Indians do not want to sell their land ● Commissioners’ tactics return to force ● Squatters ■ Native American-American Relations ● Conquered peoples ● Desire for land ● Treaty policy ● Native American Reactions to Federal Indian Policy ○ The Iroquois after the American Revolution ○ Missionaries ○ Opposition ○ Accomodation (cornplanter) ○ Handsome Lake ■ Before 1799 ■ 1799 → visions ● Return to their old ways ● A chance to rebuild and revitalize ● Repudiate alcohol, gambling, and fighting ● Syncretism ■ 1814 → Handsome lake died ○ Handsome Lake Church today ● Political Reactions in the North ● Military: The Struggle for Ohio - the 1770s ○ Ohio tribes assert their independence ○ An assist from the British -- why? ■ Buffer state ○ American still need land (conflict) ■ Kentucky militia attacks (1780s) ■ Blue Jacket -- Shawnee ● Retaliates in Kentucky ■ Little turtle → Miami ● Joins Blue Jacket, shuts down Ohio River ■ Arthur St. Clair, Governor of NW Territory ● Feared success might lead to further resistance ● Sends Josiah Harmar with 1,450 militia ● Battle of Maumee, October 22, 1970 ■ Two ambushes ● 183 American-Americans dead ● George Washington’s reaction ■ Blue Jacket continues raids ● George Washington gets involved ○ St.Clair is not the leaders of 2,300 militia and 200 “cooks” → actually prostitutes ■ 46 of 52 officers died (why?) ○ Indian casualties: 21-50 are dead ○ Resulted in 1st cabinet meeting and 1st congressional hearing ● “Mad” Anthony Wayne ○ Disciplined ○ Peace offering → refused ○ Second peace offering → counteroffer ○ Canadian Governor -- we will help! ○ Fort Recovery attacked (failed) ○ Little Turtle → call for peace? ○ Battle of Fallen Timbers ○ British reaction ● Treaty of Fort Greenville, 1795 ○ 1,100 sign a new treaty ○ Cost of resistance (is Land!) ● Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (Shawnee) ○ Loss of land (early experiences) ■ Lost opportunities ■ Dependency ■ Alcohol ○ Tecumseh ■ Born in 1768 ■ Helped defeat St.Clair ■ At fallen timbers ■ Refused to attend Fort Greenville negotiations ○ Lalawethika ■ Hard early life ■ Vision in 1805 with the creator ● Alcohol ● Cultural recidivism ■ William Henry Harrison ● The challenge to make something happen ● The eclipse then happens (by chance) ● Tecumseh ○ Emerges as a leader (pro British) ○ 1809, attempts at confederacy ■ Political and military unity ■ Ventralized leadership ■ Common ownership of land ■ Reactions of other chiefs ■ Reactions of younger men ○ Harrison attacks when Tecumseh is away (1811) ○ Tecumseh in the South (Speech) ■ Problems in the south: ● Economic ● Mixed bloods ● Less pressured ■ Risk everything now and win freedom or slowly die out overtime and face oppression ○ Tecumseh returns to Ohio ■ Was that the end fo Tenskawata’s power ■ He rebuilds the alliance ■ War of 1813 ● A general ● Fort Detroit captured ● The tide turns in Ohio ● British retreat ● Thames River, October 1813 ○ Tecumseh is killed ○ Conclusions: ■ Diversity is key to inability to unite ■ Resistance in the NW is over ■ The Ohio River Valley is a model: ● Desire for land ● Negotiations ● Resistance ● Defeat and then renegotiations Lecture 10: The South: Resistance, Removal, and King Cotton ● American Expansion in the 1790s: ○ Space: ■ Thomas Jefferson ■ Democracy → the Yeoman Farmer ○ Time: ■ Alexander Hamilton ■ Manufacturing ■ Set an example ○ Linked to two ideas about how to deal with Indians ■ Gradualists ■ Removalists ● Gradualists: ○ Peaceful coexistence ○ Slow assimilation ■ How? ● Missionary work ● Education ● Land Usage: farm not hunt ■ Why necessary? ■ Advocates: Thomas Jefferson ■ Goals: ● Civilize the Indian ● Open land ● Peace ● Removalists ○ Beliefs concerning Indians: ■ Are irredeemably savages ■ Extinction will eventually take place/some will assimilate ○ Rights to Land? (No) ○ Could peace be maintained? ● The Gradualists Hold Sway: 1800-1820 ○ Ohio example conflicted with Gradualist ideals ■ Violence ■ Not assimilating ○ The South → The Cotton Gin ■ New push on tribal lands ● 1971 - 2 million pounds ● 1860 - 1 billion pounds ○ 500 times the production, means? ● Conflict just like in Ohio ● The Case of the Miskogee (Creek) ○ Buffer State before the American Revolution ○ After the Revolution: ■ Choices ■ Divisions: Treaty of Augusta (1 Nov. 1783) ■ Influence of Colonization ■ “Traditional vs. New Ideas” ● Coercion in Political Realm ● Material Accumulation ● Land as property ● Alexander McGillivray ○ Spain was his main ally ○ Treaty of Pensacola (1784) ■ Panton, Leslie Company ○ The United States (his view) ■ American overtures ○ Spanish Worries → Creek strategies ■ Trade triangle ○ American Peace Commission (1785) ■ Tame King, Fat King ■ 3 million acres ceded ○ Attacks, 1786 ■ Settlers and surveyors killed ○ Shoulderbone River meeting (3 Nov. 1786) ■ Negotiated by the state of Georgia ■ Plots? ■ American Threats ■ A bluff is called ○ Surveyors ■ Attacks and responses ■ Trade permit to the Fat King ○ Henry Knox ■ War is not honorable ■ Frontier rabble ■ Money concerns ○ 1790, McGillivray goes to New York ■ European war between Spain and Wngland ■ Consequences of failure to sign the treaty? War. ■ Treaty signed: ● Land for farming tools and animals ● Exclusive trade contract ● General McGillivray ■ Creek lose power and land ● Divisions: Many angered by the treaty ● Competition for trade ■ McGillivray Dead in 1794 ● Legacy of tribal fissures ● Strategies of McGillivray? ● Importance of trade ebbed with American competition ● War of 1812: Deepening Fissures in Creek Society ○ Red sticks, mostly Upper Creek traditionalists ■ Lower creek had close ties to the US traders ■ More accommodationists (intermarried) ○ Fort Mims (30 Aug. 1813) ■ 350-500 Americans, mixed-bloods, slaves are dead ○ Strange allies attack the Red Sticks: causing over 3,000 deaths on both sides ○ Force led by Andrew Jackson ■ Horseshoe Bend, 27 March 1814 ● 800 of 1,000 Red Sticks killed ■ Land cessions: treaty of Fort Jackson ● 23 million acres ceded ● Red Sticks Migrations to Florida ○ Georgia raids ○ Andrew Jackson in Florida ■ Takes Pensacola ■ Executed two British traders ○ 1819, Florida to the United States ■ Adams-Onis Treaty ■ $5 million in legal claims and tariff privileges ● Gradualists: Were they successful? ○ Ohio River Valley? ○ Assimilation? ○ Thomas McKenny, Commissioner of Indian Affairs ○ Admitted defeat ○ James Monroe, 1824-Supported Indian Removal ■ Stereotyping ■ Voluntary ■ Lands in the the West to be equal in size ● Indian Removal: The Cherokee ○ The Cherokee and the Problem of American Indian Removal Policy ■ Christianization, 1801-1817 ■ Sequoyah ● The Phoenix, newspaper ■ Government changed in 1828 ● Republican ● Land not for sale: capital offense ● Bicameral Council ■ John Ross ■ A Cherokee model? ○ Results of Cherokee “Assimilation” ■ Land still in demand ■ The 1802 Georgia deal ■ Jackson’s treaty in 1817 ● Andrew Jackson ○ Jackson is elected President in 1828 ■ Supports Indian Removal ■ A new Indian policy - Separation ● A blend of Gradulatist and Removalist Ideas ○ Redeemable ○ Force necessary ○ Then Indians would be ready to join society ■ Georgia acted, 1828 ● Nationalism ● Race ■ Gold ● Militia removed ● New laws ● The Removal Act (28 March 1830) ● Removal and the Southern Indian Nations: ○ Choctaw: Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830) ■ 4 out 13 thousand die on the trail ■ 7 thousand stay in Mississippi ● To assimilate/hide ○ Creek ■ Out in 1832 ■ Resisted, but forced out by 1836 ● 10 or 22 thousand dead on the trail ○ Monmouth boat collision killed over 300 ○ Seminole ■ Second Seminole War (1835-1842) ■ Cost the US $40-60 million and fifteen-hundred troops ■ Four thousand removed but the rest stayed on the new reservation ● Osceola tricked and captured in 1837 ● Died in prison in 1838 ● Cherokee Removal ○ Attempts to stop the removal → John Ross (1830-38) ○ Cherokee v. Georgia (1831) ■ Domestic Dependent Nations ○ Worcester v. Georgia (1832) ■ States have no jurisdiction over Native American ■ Attempt to correct the Johnson v. M’Intosh ○ The Land Lottery (1833) ○ Major Ridge and Elias Boudinot want a treaty (1834) ■ Washington visit ■ Treaty of New Echota (29 Dec. 1835) ■ Divisions ■ General Winfield Scott ■ 18,000 removed ● 4,000 died ■ The price they paid: Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot executed for the 1835 Treaty of New Echota in Indian Territory in (1839) ● Started a Cherokee Civil War that lasted until after the American Civil War Lecture 11: Westward Migration and the Plains Wars ● Manifest Destiny: ○ An idea, not an official policy ○ Journalist John L. O’Sullivan (1839) ■ “Divine Destiny” ○ Wars with Mexico ■ “Thornton Affair” ○ Argument with Britain over Oregon Territory ○ President James Polk (1844) ■ “54-40 or fight” ● Impact of Westward expansion on the Great Plains (1840s) ○ Environmental impact → 1841-59 over 300,000 people and 1.5 million head of livestock crossed the plains ■ Disease ■ Competition for grass ■ Effects of roads ■ Competition for resources ■ Competition for physical space Dought: End of the LIttle Ice Age ■ Buffalo nearing extinction ● Over hunting: Indian and White ● Disease ● Climatic changes ● Early Northern Plains Warfare with US ○ Long period of peace: ■ Followed by three decades of war ■ Two expanding powers: ● Lakota (Sioux) ○ Was the horse a universal good? ● United States ○ Grattan Massacre (1854) ■ Sickly cow escapes, is butchered ■ Lt. John L. Grattan ■ Offer refused ■ Result? ○ Denver gold rush (1958-59) ○ The Southern Cheyenne → two voices ■ War → Dog Soldiers ■ Conciliation: Black Kettle and White Antelope ● Washington DC (1852) ● Millard Fillmore → Flag for BK, and Medal for WA ● Colorado ○ Small raids → fears ■ John Evans ■ John Chivington ■ Lean Bear ■ Massacre ■ Raids escalate ○ Black Kettle to Denver ■ Promises → Fort Lyon ■ Sand Creek → Dog Soldiers to Sioux with Northern Cheyenne ● 29 november, 1864 ○ 150 dead ○ Cheyenne and Arapahoe join the Oglala led by Red Cloud and man Afraid of His Horse ○ Spotted Tails offered help ■ Detained ■ Fled to Powder River ● Red Cloud’s War (1866-68) ○ Homestead Act of 1862 ○ Two incidents: ■ Treaty commission at Ft. Laramie ● Poor year ● Some stayed out ● Negotiations failed ■ Colonel Henry B. Carrington at the Powder River ● Red Cloud’s response ● Fort Phil Kearney and CF Smith ● The attacks: ○ Builders and supply trains ○ Winter camp ○ Lures ○ William J. Fetterman ○ 21 December, 1866 ● Renewed attacks in 1867 ■ Lakota Victory? The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) ● Abandoned Forts ● Close Bozeman Trail ○ Rail road ● Misunderstandings and Divisions with the treaty of Fort Laramie ○ Two interpretations: ■ Lakota: ● Autonomy ● Isolation ● Trade ■ US: ● Confinement ● “Temporary” possession ● Rail road ● The Black Hills to the Little Bighorn ○ Custer’s 1874 Black Hills Expedition ■ General Sheridan’s orders for a fort? Violation ■ Religious affront ■ Real purpose of expedition ○ The 1875 commission to Red Cloud’s Agency ■ 10,000 Lakota ■ Lease the Black Hills? ● No ■ Sell the ● 700 USD million not only 6 million ○ Grant’s announcement (29 Nov 1875) ■ Purpose ■ Expectations ○ The sun dance ■ Sitting Bull’s dream ● American Reaction ○ Word of Custer’s defeat reached the east ■ shock ○ Agencies became a “new” place ○ Winter campaigns of 1876-77 ○ Crazy Horse ■ Another “misunderstanding” led to tragedy ○ New Interpretations (The Crow) ■ Reno’s attack needed aid, Custer did not act ○ The End of a Cultural Freedom on Reservations? Lecture 12 - The Evolution of the Reservation System ● The Era of Direct Policy Assimilation (1851-1920) ○ Two American Phrases about saving Native Americans ○ Goals: ■ Total assimilation ■ Preparation for American life ○ Reformers’ goals: ■ Indian family life reimagined ■ Indians communities broken up ■ Indian religion obliterated ● Education of children ● Individualization of land ○ Early Answer? Reservations (1851)