Role of Freikorps and SA in Weimar Republic's Downfall

Lessons in Extremism: The Role of the Freidrikorps, Sturmabteilung, Schutzstaffel, and Geheim Stattspoleiza in The Downfall of the Weimar Republic Allison Brown HIST 4990: Weimar Dr. Blackler 10 May, 2023 1 “That so many Germans became Nazis was not an accident, an unlikely result of 1 disastrous economic and political conditions.” Fritzsche, wrote the aforementioned which alludes to the economic and political turmoil which would plague democratic Weimar. Weimar was undeniably a period of political and economic instability marked by the rise of paramilitary organizations and violent extremism. These groups emerged from the chaos and political polarization of the time, fueled by nationalist and radical ideologies that rejected the democratic and liberal values of the Republic. Paramilitary organizations, such as the Sturmabteilung (SA) and the Reichsbanner, were formed to protect political parties and to intimidate opponents. They engaged in violent clashes with each other and with the police, resulting in a breakdown of law and order. This atmosphere of violence and fear contributed to the erosion of democratic institutions and paved the way for the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Understanding the role of paramilitaries and violent extremism in the Weimar Republic is essential to understanding the rise of Nazi Germany and the tragedy of Weimar’s downfall. This paper will examine the political and social context that allowed these groups to emerge, their ideologies and tactics, and their affect on the Weimar Republic's stability and democracy and will argue economic turmoil led to political extremism and the subsequent militarization of paramilitary groups including the Freidrikorps, Sturmabteilung (SA), Schutzstaffel (SS), and Geheim Stattspoleiza (Gestapo), which all contributed to Hitler’s consolidation of military power with the Reichswehr. To make this argument, this essay will first briefly examine the economic situation in Germany, discuss the paramilitary groups in Germany from 1919 to 1933, and then analyze how paramilitaries were pivotal to Hitler’s consolidation of power. By understanding 1 Peter Fritzsche,Germans into Nazis, pg. 8 2 extremism and political violence in Weimar, valuable lessons about the dangers of political polarization and the importance of defending democratic institutions. Rise of Paramilitaries and Violent Extremism Economic, political, and military instability were all precursors to the rise of fascism and Hitler's consolidation of power. In Germany, the devastating economic effects of World War I and the Great Depression fueled popular discontent and created a sense of crisis that traditional political solutions were unable to address. The use of violence, particularly by paramilitary organizations, was seen as a way to restore order and impose the will of the nation on those deemed enemies of the state. The development of paramilitaries in Germany was not unique, however. As Stanley Payne notes, paramilitary groups also emerged in Italy and France in response to economic turmoil and political extremism, ultimately leading to the rise of fascist 2 regimes in both countries. These groups often operated outside the bounds of traditional political institutions, using violence to intimidate opponents and establish de facto military control over territories. In Germany, the paramilitary organization that would become the Sturmabteilung (SA) was formed in 1920 by Ernst Röhm, a veteran of World War I and a member of the Thule 3 Society, a nationalist and anti-Semitic organization. The SA quickly grew in size and power, engaging in violent clashes with other paramilitary groups and left-wing activists. The organization was seen as a bulwark against the perceived threats to the nation, and its members saw themselves as defenders of traditional values and German identity. The use of violence as a tool for political gain was a key feature of fascist ideology and practice. As Hannah Arendt 2 Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), pg. 37-41. 3 Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), pgs. 103-105. 3 notes, fascist regimes sought to create a “permanent state of emergency” that justified the use of 4 violence to suppress dissent and establish total control over society. The paramilitaries that emerged in Germany and other European countries played a critical role in creating this sense of crisis and legitimizing the use of violence as a means of achieving political objectives. The descent into “counter-revolutionary violence” in the form of paramilitary groups however, started earlier with the Freikorps who suppressed the Spartacist uprising and the 5 following insurgency of January to March 1919. The Freikorps were a decentralized coalition of militant groups who were nationalistic, anti-Communist, and strongly opposed to the Treaty of Versailles. A number of militants fought in World War I and many members of Freikorps gave credence to the ‘stab-in-the-back’ myth leading to Germany’s defeat. The Freikorps also assassinated Karl Liebknicht and Rosa Luxemburg, facing minimal charges in Weimar’s failed judicial system. The Weimar government, at the time led by Friedrich Albert, utilized the Freikorps when beneficial to the state, using the paramilitary group to quell the German Revolution of 1918-1919 and the Bavarian Soviet Republic in 1919. Albert’s use of the Freikorps set a dangerous precedent moving forward for the state acknowledgment of legitimacy and use of paramilitary organizations. The Freikorps disbanded in 1920, but many members joined the nascent NSDAP. It is also important to note that future players, Heinrich Himmler, Ernest Röhm, and Karl Wolff, were all members of the Freikorps. Growth of Weimar’s Public Extremism 4 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1951), pg.315. 5 Geoff Eley,“Conservatives and radical nationalists in Germany: the production of fascist potentials , 1912-28,” pg. 55 4 Broadly put, political extremism played a significant role in the rise of paramilitary organizations. The failure of the traditional political parties to provide stability and address the nation's problems led to the growth of extremist parties such as the Nazi Party and the Communist Party. These parties formed their own paramilitary organizations, the Sturmabteilung (SA) and the Red Front Fighters' League (RFB), respectively. These groups provided a sense of belonging and purpose to disillusioned individuals and attracted those who were willing to use violence to achieve their political aims. Secondly, economic instability was a driving force behind the rise of paramilitaries. The collapse of the German economy led to mass unemployment and poverty, which made many people feel marginalized and resentful towards the government. This created a fertile ground for the emergence of paramilitary organizations, as they offered a sense of community and security to those who felt abandoned by the state. The Freikorps, for example, were composed mainly of demobilized soldiers who had lost their jobs and were searching for a new purpose. Additionally, the Treaty of Versailles contributed to the rise of paramilitary groups by imposing strict limitations on the German military. The treaty banned conscription and limited the size of the German army to 100,000 soldiers. This led to the emergence of paramilitary groups as a way to circumvent these limitations and create a de facto military force. The Freikorps, for instance, were used by the government to suppress uprisings and maintain order in the country. The weakness of the central government and its inability to maintain law and order provided a fertile ground for the growth of paramilitary groups. The government was unable to control the many different factions and groups that were competing for power, leading to a state of anarchy in some areas. The paramilitary groups filled this void and took on the role of maintaining order and enforcing their own brand of justice. 5 Undeniably, the legacy of World War I played a role in the growth of paramilitaries during the Weimar Republic. Many veterans felt abandoned by the government and turned to extremist groups and paramilitaries as a way to maintain a sense of camaraderie and purpose. This was particularly true for those who had suffered physical and psychological trauma during the war. Formation of the Sturmabteilung (SA) The Sturmabteilung (SA), formed in 1921 in Munich, were colloquially known as ‘brownshirts’ due to their brown uniform. Initially, many members were ex-soldiers or unemployed men, again referring to the economic turmoil which led to political extremism. The SA was primarily responsible for the protection of leading NSDAP members and disrupting other political opponents’ meetings. A former member of the Freikorps, Ernst Röhm led the SA starting in 1931. The SA was distinctly separate from the German army and often used street violence to intimidate Nazi opposition groups such as socialists. During the global Great Depression from 1929 to 1933, the SA grew in its ranks, an example of poor economic climate leading to political extremism and radicalization. By 1934, the SA was one of the largest paramilitaries globally at just under five million, dwarfing the Reichswehr which was prohibited from being more than one-hundred thousand standing men. The importance of this wide discrepancy is twofold. First, the SA was a superior power to the Reichswehr, meaning their paramilitary held more power. And second, this discrepancy in power would lead to caution from Hitler about the autonomy and motives of the SA. Formation of the Schutzstaffel (SS) 6 Within the Sturmabteilung (SA) during this period was the Schutzstaffel (SS). Formed in 1925, the SS was created similar to the SA as an initial protection force for Hitler. The SS was a small subdivision of the SA with approximately three hundred members until 1929. At that time, Heinrich Himmler took over the organization, and expanded it dramatically. By 1933, the SS had expanded to over thirty-five thousand members within the SA. Hitler’s growing concern and discontentment over the SA and its leader Röhm, as well as concerns over the SA’s power, would culminate in 1934 with a covert meeting in Wilhelmshaven. Hitler had near total control over Germany but, nonetheless, perceived threats from the SA and Ernest Röhm were concerning to him. Hitler knew the SA could destroy his plans to merge both the offices of the chancellery and the presidency under his leadership. Furthermore, both Hitler and the Reichswehr had a mutual enemy with the impending influence of the SA under Röhm. During the meeting in Wilhelmshaven , Hitler met with the Reichswehr and supposedly came to an agreement; Hitler agreed to never disband or replace the Reichswehr with the SA in return for the commitment following the death of President Hindenburg, the Reichswehr would be loyal to Hitler. The Reichswehr’s support, Hitler knew, would be critical for his legitimacy to take power and this covert agreement would make certain of that. Thus, the SA and Röhm, with their presence and control, were an obstacle to garnering the future support of the Reichswehr. Although some conflict between the SS and SA were based on rivalries of leaders and their role to meet Hitlers demands, members in both paramilitaries had key socio-economic differences. SS members were generally from the middle class, while the SA had its base among the unemployed and working class. The socio-economic divide is another example of how the economic troubles in Weimar and Nazi Germany contributed to political extremism both in average German society and within members of paramilitaries. 7 Violence Extremism and Paramilitaries Depiction in Weimar Cinema and Literature The turbulent era of the Weimar Republic in Germany, marked by political upheaval and the rise of paramilitary organizations, had a profound influence on the artistic expression of the time. Films and books emerged as powerful mediums to reflect and comment on the prevalent paramilitary violence that plagued the society. These artistic works provided a lens through which the public could explore and understand the complexities and consequences of such violence. In German Weimar, films like “M”(1931) directed by Fritz Lang depicted the atmosphere of fear and lawlessness that pervaded Weimar Germany. While not directly focused on paramilitary violence, the film delves into the theme of societal breakdown, featuring a child murderer hunted down by both the police and the criminal underworld. The film serves as a metaphor for the breakdown of order and the desperate search for justice in a society grappling with violence and moral decay. Another notable film, “Die Brücke” (The Bridge, 1959) directed by Bernhard Wicki, explores the legacy of World War II on a group of German teenagers. While set during the later Nazi regime, the film touches upon the militarization and indoctrination of youth that was a precursor to paramilitary violence. It reveals the destructive consequences of ideological fervor and blind obedience to authority. Literature also played a significant role in capturing the portrayal of paramilitary violence during the Weimar Republic. One notable example is Erich Maria Remarque's “All Quiet on the Western Front” (1929). Although focusing primarily on the experiences of soldiers during World War I, the novel reflects the dehumanizing effects of war and the indoctrination of young men 8 into violent ideologies. It serves as a poignant critique of the glorification of violence and the manipulation of idealistic youth for political ends. Overall, films and books of the Weimar Republic era provided a platform for artists and authors to explore the themes of paramilitary violence, political extremism, and the consequences they had on German society. By delving into the psychological and societal impacts of such violence, these works shed light on the dangers of radical ideologies and the erosion of democratic values. They serve as a testament to the resilience of artistic expression in times of upheaval, offering audiences both then and now an opportunity to reflect upon the consequences of violence and the importance of upholding peace and stability in society. More broadly, the development and influence of paramilitaries beginning with the Freidrikorps and developing into the Sturmabteilung (SA), Schutzstaffel (SS), and Geheim Stattspoleiza (Gestapo) was critical in Hitler assuming military control with the Reichswehr in 1934 as well as the downfall of the Weimar Reoub. After the Nazi Party and Hitler the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Geheim Stattspoleiza (Gestapo) would continue to occupy an important 6 role within the totalitarian state with what came next being worse than previously imaginable. 6 Eric D. Weitz,Weimar Germany, pg. 367 9