John Lewis March: Historical Witnessing & Memory

Walking in the Spirit of History: John Lewis’ March, Historical Witnessing, and the Resources of Collective Memory A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation with Honors in Rhetoric Studies. Whitman College May 08, 2019 ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. iv Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. v List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... vi Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1 The Civil Rights Movement & Visual Rhetoric .......................................................................... 1 John Lewis: The Individual ............................................................................................................ 2 Image Events .................................................................................................................................... 2 Comics ............................................................................................................................................... 5 MARCH: Context and Structure ................................................................................................... 6 Comic Book Terms: Time, Place, & Color .................................................................................. 8 Chapter 1. The Civil Rights Movement: Understanding the Values and Cause ......................11 MARCH: Book One .....................................................................................................................11 What is the Spirit of History? ............................................................................................................12 MARCH: Book Two .....................................................................................................................13 Chapter 2. Constituting Citizenship, Being, and a New Collective Memory ...........................17 Witnessing to the Past: Violence and Sacrifice ..........................................................................18 Black & White Imagery & Panels: Book Two & Three ...........................................................20 Chapter 3. The Spirit of History: A Moral Compass towards the Beloved Community .......25 Transitions: Book Two to Book Three ......................................................................................26 MARCH: Book Three ...................................................................................................................27 Book Three: The Testing of the Spirit ......................................................................................30 End of Book Three: Selma to Montgomery .............................................................................36 President Barack Obama & Selma: .............................................................................................37 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................39 Appendix A: Book Two ....................................................................................................................42 Appendix B: Book Three ..................................................................................................................56 Appendix C .........................................................................................................................................72 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................75 iii iv Abstract This essay analyzes the comic book series March, written by John Lewis, Andrew Aydin, and illustrated by Nate Powell. Inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, the series portrays how Lewis became involved with the Civil Rights Movement, the difficulties he and others faced, and its relation to Barack Obama’s inauguration. March engages this history through opposing themes of non-violence and violence, humanity and dehumanization, the sacrifice of individuals as well as communities. I argue that through these themes, March acts as a witness to the sacrifice, violence, and deaths of men and women within the Civil Rights Movement to achieve moments of freedom like Barack Obama being elected as president. This witnessing allows future and past generations to validate the history of African Americans in the country and enact freedom, after understanding the purpose and context of the Civil Rights Movement. I use March as an example of how visual rhetoric can be utilized to remember history and witness to the present. Keywords: Civil Rights Movement, Spirit of History, Visual Rhetoric, sacrifice, non-violence and violence, and Golgotha v List of Figures Figure 1: Book Two page 79-80 ................................................................................................... 18 Figure 2: Book Two page 90-91 ................................................................................................... 20 Figure 3: Book Three page 184-185 ............................................................................................ 22 Figure 4: Book Three page 47 ...................................................................................................... 24 Figure 5: Book Three page 180-81 .............................................................................................. 30 Figure 6: Book Three page196-197 ............................................................................................. 32 Figure 7: Book Three page 200-201 ............................................................................................ 33 Figure 8: Book Three 202-203 ..................................................................................................... 35 Figure 9: Book Three 204-205 ..................................................................................................... 36 vi Introduction The Civil Rights Movement & Visual Rhetoric “In the words of Faulkner, “the past is never dead, it is not even past.” ― Hannah Arendt1 The Civil Rights Movement has been depicted in many forms throughout American history; this includes but is not limited to documentaries, biographies, and historical textbooks. One way activists generated support during the movement was through the circulation of images and media. By using visual rhetoric, in addition to their bodily sacrifices, individuals set an unprecedented following and national consciousness of the inequalities African-Americans faced in the United States. This circulation of media and images should be examined not only in analysis of the Civil Rights Movement but also in our understanding of the movement today. Through these historical narratives, American communities have made quick conclusions that we live in a “post-racial” society, especially in relation to the inauguration of former President Barack Obama.2 I argue that it is important that we complicate what the Civil Rights Movement was, who it implicated, and how it changed citizenship in the United States. In this thesis, I will look at the comic book series March, how it constitutes a complex collective memory of the Civil Rights Movement and necessitates an emotional response to its narrative. I will then examine how its form, as visual rhetoric, can disrupt generalizations of the Civil Rights Movement and its relation to the present. But first, let us look at some context of the Civil Rights Movement and how it began. Watson, Martha Solomon. “The Issue Is Justice: Martin Luther King Jr.’s Response to the Birmingham Clergy.” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 7, no. 1 (2004): 1–22. 2 After the election of President Barack Obama in 2009, many media sources began recirculating and utilizing the term “post-racial” to define the present moment that the United States had stepped into by electing their first black president. Many news sources associate the term with CNN news anchor Lou Dobbs who gave a segment on September 16, 2009 called Democrats Divided; Racist or Dissent; President Obama's Czars; Border Violence where he discusses Obama’s election in conjunction with a comment made by former President Carter. The term has been used prior to this event but generally expresses an attitude where a nation moves beyond race and treats its citizens free of racial preference, prejudice or discrimination. “Lou Dobbs Tonight.” Democrats Divided; Racist or Dissent; President Obama’s Czars; Border Violence, September 16, 2009. http:// transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0909/16/ldt.01.html. 1 The Civil Rights Movement began as the product of injustices inflicted on black individuals in the United States. As a nation founded on agriculture, labor, and exploitation, blacks were used as slaves to finance the country. And although slavery was abolished in 1865, its effects still remained. Blacks continually faced discrimination, violence, and death as they lived under segregation. Thus, the Civil Rights Movement was a struggle to achieve equal rights for black citizens under the law. One of the greatest strengths of the movement was their ability to “dramatize” the realities they faced daily. From the lynching of black bodies to the segregation of public facilities, those involved in the movement worked courageously to stop discrimination in its many forms. And through their continuous efforts of sit-ins, marches, and campaigns, they painted a very clear picture of their humanity despite violence against them. And through this general understanding of the Civil Rights Movement as a whole, I move on to describe a key figure within the movement: John Lewis. John Lewis: The Individual As referenced in his books, John Lewis is a Congressman in Atlanta, Georgia. He is known as a key leader during the Civil Rights Movement, participating in events such as the Freedom Ride Summer of 1961, Bloody Sunday, and the March on Washington. Born to Alabama sharecroppers, Lewis became invested in the values of the movement at an early age and followed in the footsteps of leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Jim Lawson. Through his memoirs, interviews and comics, the ethos of John Lewis is one of humility, respect and courage. He never claims the Civil Rights Movement as his own story but rather the story of several ordinary individuals in their determination for freedom. And throughout his books, he works to name these individuals who are forgotten and share their stories. This is also evident in the series March, which we will discuss in the following sections. Image Events “When people can see, our humanity transcends our politics.” ― Jesse Jackson (1999)3 3 Page 21. Johnson, Davi. “Martin Luther King Jr.’s 1963 Birmingham Campaign as Image Event” (2007). 2 In this section, I use two examples to illustrate the influence visual rhetoric has had on the movement. One is an article analyzing Dr. King’s Birmingham Campaign, and the other is a comic called Martin Luther King Jr. and the Montgomery Story. Both utilize visual rhetoric to circulate the values of the movement and demonstrate the injustices blacks faced in the United States. As Davi Johnson states in her article Martin Luther King Jr.’s 1963 Birmingham Campaign as Image Event, a key element within the Civil Rights Movement was an image event. Johnson defines this as “a type of rhetorical address that is ocular, rather than verbal. Image events are often orchestrated by social movements, and they are defined as deliberately staged spectacles designed to attract the attention of the mass media and disseminate persuasive images to a wide audience.”4 In other words, an image event was considered as an event associated with a social movement. Although these events were planned in advance, the participants could not predict the results, and thus there was a sense of kairos5 involved. Not only that, the media and photographers documenting these events were both a hindrance and a benefit in illustrating the purpose of the event. Johnson explains, that the rhetorical problem Dr. King faced during the Birmingham Campaign was one of visibility. King’s target audience was the white moderate who could not see and was not willing to act upon the racism that blacks faced every day. Dr. King implies that, like those committing blatant crimes of racism on black bodies, white moderates were an “impediment to progress” for blacks in America. And thus, the “best means of making racism visible was exposing its action on black bodies.”6 Johnson’s article also provides a helpful explanation of collective memory in relation to citizenship and images. She writes, Page 2. Ibid Kairos is a word coined in rhetoric that is widely known as an “opportune moment” or the circumstances that open moments of opportunity. The phrase is taken from a piece by Martha Solomon Watson about Dr. King Jr.’s letter. Watson, Martha Solomon. “The Issue Is Justice: Martin Luther King Jr.’s Response to the Birmingham Clergy.” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 7, no. 1 (2004): 1–22. 6 Page 3. Johnson, Davi. “Martin Luther King Jr.’s 1963 Birmingham Campaign as Image Event” (2007). 4 5 3 King’s … stated intention was “to arouse the conscience of the community.” Citizens are, of course, individuals, but individuals are only citizens when they are somehow identified with a larger collective. This identification occurs partially through imagination, or as Robert Asen puts it, through “processes of imagining about people they regard as similar to and different from themselves.” Visual modes of communication are vital to this process of imagination and constitution of the citizen “identities that are once individual and collective.”7 In other words, Dr. King utilized these images to demonstrate the physical color line between black and white bodies through segregation. He allowed viewers an avenue to identify themselves within the realms of the image events; would they be the authorities committing crimes against black bodies, or those sacrificing their lives for blacks to receive equality in the country? They were now constituted as part of a community that either hindered or helped their fellow black citizens. Just as Dr. King used these visual images to shake white moderates into action during the Birmingham Campaign, I argue that Lewis, Aydin, and Powell use this visual form in depicting the Civil Rights Movement. By sharing several image events throughout March, the authors shake a generation of readers into action. As Johnson writes, “When white moderates did not see the reality of racism, they did not comprehend the urgency of the situation and they were complacent in their assumption that the passage of time would somehow naturally smooth things over. King had to find a way of making time itself visible, exposing the brutality of racism to make his audience see the immediacy of the threat.”8 The act of seeing blacks and their encounters with authority was essential in the movement. It humanized black citizens and forced viewers to firmly take a stance for or against the protestors. On top of that, viewing these events necessitated an urgent action. Instead of waiting for progress to come “naturally” for black citizens, witnesses had to do something. In the same way, present day viewers of March cannot wait for progress or assume a post-racial society for 7 8 Page 7-8. Ibid Page 16. Ibid 4 the United States. Instead, they are called to act upon what they see and to pursue the values of the Civil Rights Movement displayed in the comic. Comics “I don't remember when exactly I read my first comic book, but I do remember exactly how liberated and subversive I felt as a result.” ― Edward Said, Palestine9 Comics have been one way in which the history of the Civil Rights Movement as well as other historically traumatic events have been recorded. Within the context of the Civil Rights Movement, there are comics such as Silence of Our Friends, Malcolm X: A Graphic Biography, King: A Comics Biography of Martin Luther King Jr., and Satchel Paige: Striking Out Jim Crow. Most of these have fallen into the genre of biographical comics. Among this genre, one particular comic inspired the March series: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Montgomery Story. It was a 16-page comic published in 1957 by an organization called the Fellowship of Reconciliation. The comic book featured the story of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his growing involvement in the Civil Rights Movement, Rosa Parks refusal to get off a bus in Montgomery, and the Montgomery Bus Boycott that occurs in 1954. The story is narrated by a black man named “Jones” living in Montgomery and is contemplating using a weapon to defend his family during the era of Jim Crow. As the story continues, Jones is compelled to do something for Rosa Parks who is arrested. He and others begin a one day boycott of the buses and spread the news. Dr. King Jr. joins their efforts and calls their response “a nonviolent protest against injustice.”10 In the midst of violent opposition to their boycott, the community continues their protest. And in conclusion, the comic leaves readers with steps on how to use the “Montgomery Method” of non-violence. This comic, was one of many visual forms that demonstrated the non-violence blacks participated in at the start of the movement. The comic circulated all throughout the south to civil rights groups, churches, and schools and became part of Sacco, Joe, and Edward W. Said. Palestine. Seattle, WA: Fantagraphics Books, 2001. Page 5. Hassler, Alfred, and Benton Resnik. Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story. Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1957. 9 10 5 many nonviolence workshops for young activists. As recorded by Richard Deats, the FOR Director of Communication, “the comic book was originally intended to convey to semiliterate persons the story of nonviolence and its effectiveness as seen in the Montgomery movement. The medium of the highly popular comic book was believed to be the best way to reach masses of exploited AfricanAmericans.”11 Through their distribution and form, comics have continued to be accessible and easy to understand, more so than academic texts or other forms of record keeping.12 As a result, many young black activists were inspired by the form and the message this comic carried. In writing March, Lewis and Aydin hoped to follow a similar structure to the Montgomery Story, but “with more stories, more examples, and in a more specific way.”13 Thus, March would act as a visual manifestation of the Civil Rights Movement and the non-violent steps blacks took to achieve equal rights. MARCH: Context and Structure March is a series of three comic books created in collaboration with Congressman John Lewis, his digital director and policy advisor Andrew Aydin, and illustrator Nate Powell. Published between 2013-2016, the three books work to tell the historical narrative of John Lewis as a child, his involvement in the Civil Rights Movement, and its relation to the inauguration of President Barack Obama. Lewis dedicates March to “the past and future children of the movement” in hopes that they too would be inspired by the series. After the first book was published in 2013, it created a huge following and the three collaborators presented the book at the San Diego Comic-Con. Upon its completion, the series received many nominations and awards, including the Robert F. Kennedy Book Award and the Will Aydin, Andrew. “Cover Story: The Comic Book That Changed the World,” August 1, 2013. https://creativeloafing.com/content-185638-Cover-Story:-The-comic-book-that-changed-the-world. 12 On the other hand, comics have also been associated with darker themes of violence, crime, and horror that make the context unpalatable to some readers. In Aydin’s article he discusses how comics were both popularized within the United States during the “atomic age” and critiqued in the public eye for potentially increasing juvenile delinquency. However, generally comics have been one common way in disseminating knowledge. Ibid 13 Aydin, Andrew, John Lewis, and Nate Powell. Civil rights history illustrated in new book. Interview by Rachel Maddow. The Rachel Maddow Show MSNBC, November 3, 2013. http://www.msnbc.com/rachelmaddow-show/watch/civil-rights-history-illustrated-in-new-book-62229571856?v=railb&. 11 6 Eisner Comic Industry Award. On the publisher’s website it cites that the graphic novel has been adopted by 17 colleges and universities across the United States as first-year “common reading” material. It was reviewed as a refreshing new take on educating young people about the Civil Rights Movement. As one reviewer writes, “In graphic novel form, his first-hand account makes these historic events both accessible and relevant to an entire new generation of Americans.”14 By mobilizing the imagery, aesthetics, and rhetoric associated with the movement, and putting them in comic book form, March challenges the current imagination of the Civil Rights Movement. It allows readers to ask pertinent questions like: Who circulated these original images during the movement? What agency did they have in disseminating them? And can viewers today recognize these images from their original context? In response to these questions, viewers come to terms with the complexities of the movement. Each book is in a similar format; it begins with a dedication page, an illustrative preface, and is followed by a title page. As the series continues, each book increases in length; beginning with 128 pages in Book One, 192 pages in Book Two, and finally 256 pages in Book Three. Each book is narrated by John Lewis and moves between two time frames: (1) the present of Barack Obama’s inauguration day15 and (2) the past of Lewis’ childhood and young adult life.16 Between the three books, the majority of the series is narrated in the past with transitions of the present past dispersed between anecdotes. As a whole, Book One acts as an introduction to the series, while Book Two and Three arguably deal with more challenging aspects of the movement.17 As explained by artist Powell, Book Two and Three depict several different traumatic events in Lewis’ young adult life that “should read as horror at times.”18 Rather than turning a blind eye to the violence and trauma in these images, "Top Shelf Productions." March / Top Shelf Productions. Accessed April 05, 2019. http://www.topshelfcomix.com/march. 15 I will be referring to this time frame as the present past or past present. 16 I will be referring to this time frame as the past. 17 In Appendixes B and C you can see a timeline of both Book Two and Three and how many times it transitions from past to present past and what events are specifically mentioned. 18 Lewis, John, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell. Five questions for John Lewis, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell. Interview by Elissa Gershowitz. Article, August 8, 2016. https://www.hbook.com/2016/08/authorsillustrators/interviews/five-questions-for-john-lewis-andrew-aydin-and-nate-powell/. 14 7 or seeing it as an unfortunate moment in the past, March forces readers to deal with these fragments of the movement on their own terms and in relation to the past, present past, and present future. Overall, the series takes iconic images, videos, recordings, and freedom songs throughout the movement and tells its story through the eyes of a key Civil Rights leader. And in doing so, readers not only humanize the actors within the movement, but reckon with their significance in the present. In the following section, we will look at comic book terms that help situate the analysis of the series. Comic Book Terms: Time, Place, & Color You give me life by reading this book and by “filling up” this very iconic (cartoony) form. Who I am is irrelevant. I’m just a little piece of you. But if who I am matters less, maybe what I say will matter more. That is the theory anyway. ― Scott McCloud in Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art 19 Time within comics functions differently from a novel. Readers can generally recognize these differences through the following terms: panels, gutters, sounds, and word bubbles. The first term I will look at more closely is “panel” or frame; which is defined as a drawing on a page that contains a segment of action. A comic book page may have one or multiple panels, which are frequently surrounded by a border or outline. The shape of the panel can be altered to indicate emotion, tension, or flashback sequences.20 In this section we will look at how artist Nate Powell utilizes the layout of the comic to evoke emotion, motion, and effect in the narrative. There are a few ways in which Powell uses panels in his comic. Most of these panels demonstrate time and the continuation of a scene. Some of the pages are divided in panels of similar sizes- four to six rectangular panels that are wide, have thin gutters, and move from left to right.21 Page 37. Maintaining original emphasis of text. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. HarperCollins Publishers, 1993. 20 Taken from the Glossary of Comics Terminology from Biz Nijdam. To continue the definition of panels, look at the following: The size, shape, and style of a panel, as well as the placement of figures and speech balloons inside it, affect the timing or pacing of a story. Panels are used to break up and encapsulate sequences of events in a narrative. What occurs in a panel may be asynchronous, meaning that not everything that occurs in a single panel necessarily occurs at one time. 21 Definition taken from Biz Nijdam. Gutter: the space between panels. Vertical gutters can be made thinner than horizontal gutters in order to encourage the reader to group each row of panels for easier reading. 19 8 Other pages are a combination of panels and page bleeds (or a splash)22 that depict the location of the scene. Overall, the panels within the comics work uniquely to express motion within the story. Some panels overlap scenes underneath them to give more context, while others show an accumulation of small events that lead to a bigger conclusion. Generally, Powell is able to express the narrative of John Lewis in a variety of ways and the reader must entrust the illustrator’s depiction. Color: Another important aspect in this comic is color. In some comics, artists use “flat colors” such as red, blue, yellow, and green. And in others, artists continue using black and white images like in March. As Scott McCloud explains, “in black and white, the ideas behind the art [in comics] are communicated more directly. Meaning transcends form. Art approaches language. In flat colors, forms themselves take on more significance. The world becomes a playground of shapes and space.”23 Those who choose to utilize black and white images must be bolder in their illustrations in order to make the scenes dynamic. And it takes a certain form of mastery for the reader to understand the effect of the narrative with black and white images. Through Powell’s use of black and white illustrations, he is able to catch the attention of the audience. As we continue to look at the March series, these terms will become more pertinent in the analysis. In the following chapters, we will look at the three books as a whole, the narrative it constructs and its implications. In addition to this, we will look at contrasting themes of nonviolence and violence, humanity and dehumanization the sacrifice of individuals as well as communities. I argue that through these themes and the personal narrative of John Lewis, readers can contextualize the Civil Rights Movement and witness to the sacrifice, violence, and deaths men and women faced to achieve moments of freedom like Barack Obama being elected as president. This witnessing allows future and past generations to validate the history of African Americans in the country and Definition taken from Biz Nijdam. Splash: A splash or splash page is a large, often full-page illustration that opens and introduces a story. It is rarely less than half a page, and occasionally covers two pages. Often designed as a decorative unit, its purpose is to capture the reader’s attention and can be used to establish time, place and mood. 23 Page 191-192. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. HarperCollins Publishers, 1993. 22 9 enact freedom, after understanding the purpose and context of the Civil Rights Movement. I use March as an example of how visual rhetoric can be utilized to remember history and witness to the present. 10 Chapter 1. The Civil Rights Movement: Understanding the Values and Cause One essential topic highlighted throughout the March series is the Civil Rights Movement, and specifically its context and values. As the reader completes the series, there is an overwhelming conviction in the cause John Lewis and others participate in. The reader understands why the Civil Rights Movement began, the goals it hoped to achieve, and its relationship to the inauguration of Barack Obama. In this section, we will look at how Lewis, Aydin, and Powell illustrate the values of the movement and how it connects to the present. MARCH: Book One Book One begins with John Lewis arriving to his office in Washington D.C. for the inauguration of Barack Obama. As he invites a mother and her two sons to his office, the story transitions into the past of Lewis’ childhood begins. Like the two boys and their mother, the reader is invited to see “how far we’ve come.”24 Throughout the first book, the reader sees the first-person account of John Lewis’ life in the South. He recounts the inequalities he witnessed between blacks and whites while going to a segregated school and visiting family in the north. Through his daily experience of handme-down buses, textbooks, segregated schools and facilities, Lewis finds a deep sense of obligation to participate in the Civil Rights Movement. This sense of obligation is first expressed as Lewis writes a letter to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the Christian preacher who shared the social gospel.25 In Lewis’ memoir, he defines the social gospel as “taking the teachings of the bible and applying them to earthbound problems and issues confronting a community and a society.”26 Unlike other Referenced on page 19 of Book One. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book One. March Trilogy. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2013. 25 Reference to page 56. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book One. March Trilogy. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2013. 26 Social gospel: Lewis references this term in relation to other preachers such as Walter Rauschenbusch (on page 65). Rauschenbusch was a German Baptist preacher who worked in New York’s Hell’s Kitchen tenements at the turn of the century. He was deeply concerned with the proper Christian response to the urban suffering 24 11 preachers that Lewis had encountered, he found Dr. King Jr. compelling because of his ability to apply the teaching of Christianity to the reality of injustice African Americans faced in the country. In his letter, Lewis asks for Dr. King’s help in suing the state of Alabama for denying him admittance to Troy State University as a black student. Although Lewis did not sue the state in the end, he had the opportunity to meet with Dr. King and his colleagues. Through their method of social gospel, Lewis found the “spirit of history” that eventually led him to participate in the Civil Rights Movement the way he did. What is the Spirit of History? The term “spirit of history” is one that is repeated all throughout the March series. Lewis coins the term to express his personal experience with the movement and in his memoir, Walking with the Wind, he explains his definition: Others might call it fate. Or Destiny. Or a Guiding Hand. Whatever it is called, I came to believe that this force is on the side of what is good, of what is right and just. It is the essence of the moral force of the universe… It is a process of giving over one’s very being to whatever role history chooses for you… And in the years ahead, time and again-- more times than I could count-- it would place me in the center of the crucible of the struggle for civil rights.27 As Lewis expresses, the spirit of history is a selfless force sparked by a personal obligation to do something in the face of human struggle. It leads individuals to its ultimate destination: towards justice and peace. In Lewis’ case, the spirit of history led him to his ideology of non-violence and provided him a “way out.” From visiting Jim Lawson’s workshops in Nashville, Lewis learned about the evils of racism, poverty, and war and how to combat these with the discipline of nonviolence. In utilizing non-violence, he and others enacted their belief in humanity and dignity on those who used he witnessed every day and was considered the first American to preach the social gospel. Lewis, John. Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. 2015th ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1998. 27 Reference on page 64. Lewis, John. Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. 2015th ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1998. 12 violence against them. As Book One comes to an end, we see young students like John Lewis participating in some of the first sit-in protests and through their dedication, they catch the attention of the nation. Book One concludes with Dr. King’s words stating, “I came to Nashville not to bring inspiration, but to gain inspiration from the great movement that has taken place in this community. No lie can live forever. Let us not despair. The universe is with us. Walk together children. Don’t get weary.”28 Through this quote the reader learns that young individuals like Lewis, surprised leading civil rights leaders and the nation with their dedication to non-violence. Not only that, these young students seemed to follow a personal call towards a truth. As Dr. King expressed, the lie of segregation permeated the nation. And in seeing the effects of this lie, these young people practiced non-violence to uphold the truths they believed in: equality, humanity, dignity, and peace. And thus, Dr. King leaves these young protestors with the reminder that their actions would come to pass. And as a result, they continued to fuel the Civil Rights Movement. From reading Book One, the reader hears the personal story of John Lewis growing up during the Jim Crow Era, the challenges and inequalities he and others faced, and how he tackled this national issue of segregation with nonviolence. While Book One illustrates the discovery of non-violence, we will move on to Book Two which demonstrates the enactment of non-violence by these young activists. MARCH: Book Two In continuation of Book One’s context, the reader sees the values these young activists stood for and the stakes they took to achieve them. In Book Two, the activists create an organization called the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and they continue organizing nonviolent protests, full of fervor. In contrast with Book One, Book Two is filled with back to back events of direct action accomplished by SNCC and other organizations. Events such as integrating the downtown lunch counters of Nashville, the Freedom Rides Summer of 1961, and the March on Referenced on page 120. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book One. March Trilogy. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2013. 28 13 Washington are featured here. As these organizations receive more attention and support from outsiders, the book points to the success and challenges they face. In addition to the many featured events, there are specific words repeated in Book Two that create a poignant theme for the reader. These words include humanity, human, and dignity. In contrast, themes of dehumanization and humiliation are also illustrated through the experiences of young black individuals in the comic. Both themes help the reader visibly see the direct opposition black people face on their journey towards equality, whether they are actively pursuing freedom or living out their daily lives. And despite this violent and deadly opposition, they continue to be fearless in their sacrifice. An example of this sacrifice and tenacity these young students demonstrate, occurs on page 30-50, where Lewis participates in the Freedom Rides Summer of 1961. The “Freedom Ride 1961” was a temporary coalition created to test the Boynton v. Virginia decision that outlawed segregation and racial discrimination on buses and bus terminals. In his application, Lewis writes: I know that an education is important and I hope to get one, but human dignity is the most important thing in my life. This is the most important decision in my life-- to decide to give up all if necessary for the freedom ride, that justice and freedom might come to the Deep South.29 Upon his arrival to Washington D.C. for training, Lewis meets his fellow Freedom Riders- a group of twelve black and white individuals from all walks of life. They commune with one another, learn about their role as Freedom Riders, write their wills, and board buses to the south. Lewis is paired with fellow rider Albert Bigelow.30 As the two step off the bus in Rock Hill, South Carolina, they are met by a group of white locals. After trying to enter the terminal labeled “whites,” the two Freedom Riders are beaten and do not press charges. That night, Lewis receives a telegram to meet with the Quakers and is sent to Philadelphia the following morning. He plans to rejoin the riders in Birmingham on Page 30. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. 30 Albert Bigelow: a pacifist arrested in 1958 for steering a skiff into a nuclear testing zone to protest the use of atomic weapons. Referenced on page 33. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. 29 14 Mother’s Day after a stop in Nashville. However, in Nashville he hears the breaking news that his bus was firebombed in Anniston. In response, he and other fellow SNCC members rush to the headquarters and discuss how they can help. Eventually, SNCC decides that they will continue the Freedom Rides Summer despite the violent response they witnessed. As a result, student leader Diane Nash calls James Farmer, the original leader of the Freedom Ride Summer, and asks for his support in their continuation of the project. Although there was the risk that they could be massacred, Nash’s reasoning was the following: “we can’t let them stop us with violence. If we do, the movement is dead.”31 This quotation signals a turning point in the movement, where young people demonstrated that they were willing to take their non-violence to the extreme of their own lives. In addition to their determination, they demonstrated a sense of urgency that could not be cooled off. As a result, Book Two signals a faster pace by which equality would be achieved. As Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy discuss the unexpected actions of SNCC students, this new pace of the movement is expressed by Dr. King as well: “I’m deeply appreciative of what the administration is doing. I see a ray of hope, but I am different from my father. I feel the need of being free now.”32 Young people were not only challenging their present situation and values, they were also setting an unprecedented pace to achieve this more equal society. The reader concludes that, young people can create a better future for themselves and set the pace in which that freedom is constituted, despite the expectations of older generations. In Chapter One, I have highlighted some key themes and terms that stamped the Civil Rights Movement. These terms include non-violence, equality, dignity, the spirit of history, and the social gospel. In addition to these themes and terms, I have analyzed Book One and Book Two. Within Book One, I argue that readers recognize the context Lewis lived in as a child during Jim Crow, his religious upbringing, and his discovery of non-violence as a means of direct action. In Page 49-50. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. 32 Page 96. Maintaining original emphasis from text. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. 31 15 Book Two, readers see the continual application of non-violence to Lewis’ reality and how it created a sense of urgency amongst other young activists. Book One and Two then conclude that despite the violence young blacks faced, the values and efforts of the movement were more important. And thus, these activists inspired the nation and constituted themselves as citizens deserving of equality and human dignity through their perseverance. In the following chapter, I will look at Book Two and Three and how themes of violence and sacrifice play a role on both citizenship and the collective memory of the Civil Rights Movement. 16 Chapter 2. Constituting Citizenship, Being, and a New Collective Memory Among all the events that occur in Book Two, there is one event and its transition between past and present past that demonstrates the power of the Civil Rights Movement. On May 20th, 1961, John Lewis and other SNCC volunteers get on a greyhound bus headed towards Montgomery. The bus was followed by an entourage of helicopters and police cars as protection. However, as they reached the city limits, their protection retreats and the volunteers find themselves on their own. When they arrive at the bus terminal, it is eerily empty until they are met by a violent mob of people, news cameras, and photographers. As the Freedom Riders step off the bus, they are ambushed by rioters with bats, clubs, and other makeshift weapons. As the riders initially try to stay calm and in one place, they are swiftly overtaken and beaten. The frantic fear of the riders is in stark contrast to the men and women beating and yelling vicious slurs at them. This violent horror continues for a consecutive six pages until a gunshot is fired, signaling a symbol of resignation on both sides. In the following three pages, readers are met with an abrupt change: the lyrics of the unofficial national anthem and the present of Barack Obama’s inauguration. 17 Figure 1 The words of one of America’s national songs never held so much weight while juxtaposed against the images of these Freedom Riders. Through these images, the audience gains an understanding of how much African Americans sacrificed to achieve this pinnacle moment of having Barack Obama as president and why it is symbolic, especially under the context of this song. With Obama as president, it acts as a symbolic response to Franklin’s last phrase “let freedom ring.” Because men and women fought and sacrificed their lives for freedom, Barack Obama can be president as an African American. Thus, through Book Two and Three, the reader begins to contextualize the collective memory of Barack Obama’s inauguration in terms of the struggles and determination that made it possible. And through viewing these images, the reader recontextualizes what it means to be citizen and human- especially as an African American. Witnessing to the Past: Violence and Sacrifice Another two themes that are highlighted throughout the series are violence and sacrifice. In addition to the values John Lewis and others stood for, the reader recognizes the persistence and action of ordinary citizens. There had to be sacrifice in order to see their dreams come to pass. And readers witness the repetition of sacrifice and violence excessively in Book Two and Three. In this section, we will look at powerful examples where individuals and collectives sacrificed their lives in Book Two and Three. Highlighted Individuals and their Golgotha As one reads through the series, they realize that this is not just an individual story about John Lewis, but a collective story of several individuals and groups who believed in the freedom and equality of African Americans. In Book Two and Three alone, over 121 people are mentioned in their involvement with the Civil Rights Movement. Most of those individuals are positive actors, while others were oppositional to the movement. Some examples of individuals mentioned are: James Chaney, Fannie Lou Hamer, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and Jimmie Lee Jackson. 18 Through their descriptions and actions illustrated in the comics readers recognize both the individual and collective sacrifices made to create a better future.33 One specific moment that highlights individual sacrifice in the series, is with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. After SNCC decides to continue the Freedom Rides, the students meet with Dr. King and ask if he will join them. He declines, saying that he is on probation. As a result, the students respond in shock because they too are on probation. They didn’t understand why he wouldn’t come with them: Figure 2 What is so unique about this scene is Dr. King’s response to them and how it is framed by illustrator Nate Powell. King remarks, “I think I should choose the time and place of my Golgotha.”34 Although the students are unhappy with his response, he makes a decision for himself that is humanizing and symbolic. The word golgotha originates from the Hebrew word “gulgoleth” which The names of these individuals and many others throughout Book Two and Three can be found in Appendixes A and B. 34 Page 91. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. 33 19 means skull. It is defined as “a place of suffering and sacrifice” or “a hill near Jerusalem where Jesus was sacrificed; Calvary.”35 In his reference to golgotha, Dr. King illustrates how real death was for each individual who participated in demonstrations for the Civil Rights Movement; especially demonstrations towards the Deep South. He also highlighted how courageous these students were in their conviction to participate in the Freedom Rides despite the possibility of death. Black & White Imagery & Panels: Book Two & Three On page 90-91 of Book Two, Powell utilizes four types of panels: (1) panels with borders, (2) borderless panels (3) overlapping panels and (4) elongated panels. The most powerful panels in this scene are panels 5-8 (the bottom row of page 90 and the top row on page 91). As you see here, this scene depicts the personal decision that Dr. King makes to stay behind during the second Freedom Rides. In the first panel, SNCC students ask Dr. King questions out of curiosity, “Are you going to join us? Will you ride with us?” After he responds in the first panel, their answers become more accusatory, “I’m on probation too!” Many voices pipe in about their position and we are drawn closer to Dr. King’s profile, pensive while challenged on his decision. In the third scene, the panel is elongated. We see just Dr. King’s face: brows furrowed and sweat sitting upon them. And the words of SNCC students sits heavy on the page, “We’re all on probation, Dr. King.” In the fourth and final panel, we are brought in even closer proximity to Dr. King’s face as he makes his final decision, “I think I should choose the time and place of my golgotha.” He announces that this is his personal choice, for better or worse. Powell indicates the importance of this decision, through color. In contrast with the other panels, where Dr. King’s figure is shaded in grey and black, panel four depicts King in white with shades of black. And although others disagree with his remarks, his words are set in stone and the reader understands the weight of his decision. 35 “Golgotha,” February 8, 2019. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/golgotha. 20 The use of color in Figure 2 is revisited in Book Three when John Lewis makes his own decision and faces opposition. As unpopular as Lewis’ decision is, Powell marks this scene as a turning point through color. As described on page 184, many blacks in the south were feeling the weight of the Civil Rights Movement. So many lives were lost in such close proximity to one another, especially in Selma. They needed to do something about these deaths; and for Lewis, a march made sense. However, as the other SNCC members discussed with one another, Lewis was alone in his belief. On page 184-185, Lewis tries to convince the group that this march would help the people of Selma, but comes to the following conclusion: “SNCC would have nothing to do with this march-but it was a SNCC letter, not a John Lewis letter…” Figure 3 Mimicking the panels of Dr. King in Book Two, the last row of panels on page 184 vary in size going from small to more elongated panels. The first two panels feature the image of SNCC 21 members, including Lewis in the right corner. While the last panel shows only John Lewis paired with the phrase, “but it was a SNCC letter, not a John Lewis letter.”36 On the following page, Lewis talks to the other SNCC members making his final case for the march. As Lewis concludes his plea and makes a decision, his figure is highlighted in a stark white and bolded in a black outline with the following words: “It was decided that, if I were to participate in the march from Selma to Montgomery, I would not represent SNCC.” Similar to the words written above, the visual images indicate a division and tension between a collective and individual decision. The images illustrate the collective worry of how this march could be co-opted, and an individual concern with providing healing to a community. Although the decision seems incremental, both the collective and individual recognize the importance of staying firm in their decisions. There are many more moments like these that depict the struggles and tensions collectives and individuals face within the movement. These decisions depicted are not easy or straightforward, but they have powerful implications. Through Powell’s imagery and Lewis’ words, they express the ethos of various individuals in the Civil Rights Movement. And in this specific scene, Lewis’ decision to participate in the march, defines his future as a civil rights leader and his own Golgotha. Later in Book Three, Dr. King Jr. gives a speech highlighting the ordinary individuals who participated in the movement just as he had before the Credentials Committee Convention in 1964. Among these individuals mentioned were James Farmer, Roy Wilkins, Fannie Lou Hamer, and widow Rita Schwerner. One particular person who stood out amongst these individuals was Fannie Lou Hamer. Lewis explains that, “over the years, Ms. Hamer endured repeated arrests, threats to her family and a beating by a police officer so brutal that it caused her to limp for the rest of her life. But that did not stop her.”37 Hamer helped with many grassroot efforts in Mississippi to give blacks the Referenced on page 184 of Book Three. Maintaining original emphasis from text. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 37 Page 48 of Book Three. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 36 22 right to vote. She was one of the ordinary individuals who is seldom recorded in history books but who made a huge impact within the movement. Figure 4 In her testimony to the credential committee, Hamer recalls her long journey to become a first-class citizen. On June 9th,1963, she and nine others were returning to Mississippi from a voter registration workshop. At a rest stop, six of them went to use the restrooms and restaurant, while Hamer waited on the bus. The six were soon ordered out by a state highway patrolman and a chief of police. Minutes later, they were arrested. As Hamer steps off the bus to see what happened, she is arrested and assaulted. The officers carry her to the county jail and put her in a cell. There, she is beaten and sexually assaulted by state highway patrolmen and coerced black prisoners. As Hamer recounts this testimony on live television, it is interrupted by a press conference set by President Lyndon B. Johnson in hopes that the nation would not watch it in its entirety. However, his plans 23 failed; her testimony becomes one of the most widely aired segments that night. This is just one example of an ordinary individual who risked her life in hopes of being a first-class citizen with rights and being treated as a decent human being. Dr. King states, “it is in these saints in ordinary life that the true spirit of democracy finds its most profound and abiding expression. For all the disenfranchised millions of this earth… recognition of the Freedom Party would say to them that somewhere in the world is a nation that cares about justice.”38 Through these scenes, Dr. King begs the question, who is defined as a martyr? In a statement to the press, on behalf of the Freedom Riders, he explains that “we all love life, and there are no martyrs here-- but we are well aware that we may have some casualties. I’m sure these students are willing to face death if necessary.”39 In a movement with such strong opposition as this, it necessitates a form of martyrdom; those who love life but are willing to sacrifice it for a future freedom. And thus, both ordinary and well-known leaders of the Civil Rights Movement must deal with the possibilities of golgotha. In listing more than 121 individuals, Lewis illustrates the sheer number of ordinary black lives lost in hopes of citizenship and recognition. And in this number, the reader must recognize the existence of these individuals and make a choice to act upon what they have witnessed. Page 115-116. Maintaining original emphasis in text. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 39 Page 91 of Book Two. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. 38 24 Chapter 3. The Spirit of History: A Moral Compass towards the Beloved Community As described earlier in this essay, the spirit of history is a term that John Lewis coins and utilizes all throughout the trilogy. Book One and Two give direct examples of how the spirit of history functions while in Book Three, the term and its power are evidently absent. In the following section, we will go into depth on how the term functions throughout Book Three to achieve moments of freedom and human dignity. In his memoir Walking with the Wind, Lewis explains how his ideology was influenced by his courses on Hegel and other philosophers. In the following passage, Lewis explores the connections between philosophy, segregation, and liberation: Professor Powell would run around the classroom-- actually run-- scribbling ideas along the length of the blackboard, spelling the dynamics of thesis and antithesis and the process of synthesis. Segregation, he would explain is a thesis. Its antithesis would be the struggle to destroy segregation. Out of that struggle would come the synthesis: integration. Birth, death and rebirth. Out of a creative conflict- a creative schism, a division and a tension between what is and what should not be- comes the process that results in what should be.40 In reference to Hegel’s theory, March acts as its reflection; depicting a creative conflict of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis throughout the three books. I posit that, Book One lays the foundation of the thesis. Where the reader, along with John Lewis, is enlightened by the system of segregation and how it impacts the lives of black individuals. Book Two illustrates the antithesis: the struggle to destroy segregation through means of nonviolence and protest. Here the reader understands the means in which black individuals must fight for their equality. And Book Three demonstrates the tensions between the thesis and antithesis; which eventually leads us to the synthesis: integration. Page 63. Lewis, John. Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. 2015th ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1998. 40 25 However, before we reach integration, we are left in this tension I call “the testing of the spirit,”41 where individuals of the Civil Rights Movement continue to fight for equality despite fierce opposition and deadly outcomes. In the following section we will look at how Book Three and its understanding of the spirit of history works differently. Transitions: Book Two to Book Three Although Book Two is technically chronologically longer than Book Three, Book Three is filled with more events, violence, and deaths. As a result, it is twice as long in page length and feels like a longer period of time.42 While the reader awaits the positive ending previewed throughout the series, Book Three is fatigue-like from nearly beginning to end. The reader, along with other individuals who sacrificed their lives, must await the end to reach any form of relief. As Powell juxtaposes moments of the past and present, he is very creative with his conclusions, transitions, and previews into the next book and the end of Book Two is just one example of this. The past events of Book Two conclude with the completion of the March on Washington with the reader hearing parts of speeches from the Big Six.43 The reader is then taken to the present past of 2009 where Obama remarks, “I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you have bestowed-- mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors.” Indicating a turn to the past in his last line, the reader is visually brought back to Sunday September 15th of 1963. As done in other pages, Powell indicates a transition in time through the imagery of a telephone--in this case, a telephone booth outside the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Later in this chapter I will use this term in conjunction with the term “golgotha” Book Three depicts 1963-1965 (2 years and 1 month) for 256 pages. In contrast, Book Two spans from 1960-1963 (2 years and 9 months) for 192 pages. 43 The Big Six was the official historical name for the six leaders who spoke and organized the March on Washington in 1963. This included A. Philip Randolph, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, Jim Farmer of CORE, and Whitney Young of the Urban Young. Each leader represented the several organizations and the tumultuous variety blacks had in their vision towards freedom. Another man who was instrumental in the success of the march was Bayard Rustin who was a pacifist and brilliant organizer. He helped plan A. Philip Randolph’s first march in 1941 and was initially ousted by the FBI and some of the Big Six for being a gay black man. As described on page 150-151. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. 41 42 26 Birmingham, Alabama.44 A man in the telephone booth inserts a coin in the machine and in response, the words “BOOM” echo on the page in black ink. White clouds envelope the page, and the man’s legs fly in the air while he holds onto a broken phone line. On the next page, we see black smoke consuming the first panel we then hear the sound of an ambulance, and in the second panel we arrive at the image of ambulances and police surrounding the church. In the third and final panel, there is the ominous symbol of a stained-glass window with a disfigured saint.45 Surrounding the stain glass window, we also see smoke inside the building and shadows of individuals calling out the names “Denise? Addie?” This scene foreshadows an intense instance where there are deliberate attempts to take the lives of black individuals. MARCH: Book Three Book Three works as a reflection of these violent events and the continuation of “battle fatigue.” The reader must act as a witness to the violence and physically feel the trauma of these ordinary individuals.46 In the first nineteen pages of the book, Powell depicts the deaths of five young individuals- Addie Mae Collins, Denise McNair, Carole Robertson, Cynthia Wesley, and Virgil Lamar Ware- all under the age of sixteen.47 Thus from the beginning, the audience is very aware of the possibility of death. As highlighted on page 91 of Book Three, individuals who participated in the Freedom Vote summer suffered many traumatic events: “1000 arrests, 80 beatings, 35 shootings, 35 church burnings, and 30 bombings. Doctors who evaluated volunteers returning home from The imagery of a telephone is mentioned several times all throughout Book One, Two and Three. In total there are at least 6 different scenes where a telephone is utilized to mark a transition in time (from past to present past) or to another scene in the past. 45 This is a symbol referenced early in Book Two and found on the back cover of Book Three. This saint-like figure is referenced on page 87 of Book Two when a brick is thrown into the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama and hits an elderly woman in the head. This image is a symbol of chaos and violence against those within the church seeking refuge from a white mob protesting outside. On page 87, this scene is followed the second Freedom Rides initiated by SNCC volunteers. 46 The images of this scene can be found in the Appendixes C. 47 The first four individuals were killed during a bombing of 16th Street Baptist Church at its annual “Youth Day.” The fifth individual, Virgil Lamar Ware, was a 16 year-old boy who was shot by a group of boy scouts. 44 27 Freedom Summer described the symptoms of the emotional and physical toll as ‘battle fatigue,’ marking a ‘crisis in the lives of those youths who experience them.’” As Book Three continues, at least twenty-two other individuals are murdered and killed. Among them are Malcolm X and Jimmie Lee Jackson. The funerals of these two individuals are depicted on pages 180-184 and filled with powerful imagery in conjunction with its message. Ossie Davis, an actor and activist who delivers Malcolm X’s eulogy, says the following: “Consigning these mortal remains to earth, the common mother of all, secure in the knowledge that what we place in the ground is no more now a man, but a seed-- which, after the winter of our discontent, will come forth again to meet us.”48 In addition to these words, we see a borderless panel depicting rain and a tree. Moments after Ossie Davis’ eulogy, news reaches the attendants that Jimmie Lee Jackson has died. As Lewis attends Jackson’s funeral, he recalls that it was “a cold, hard winter rain that I’ve really only felt in the south.”49 In both funeral scenes, there is a sense of permanence and grief for the martyrs who suffered under the hands of segregation. This physical coldness that Lewis places in the south, symbolizes the relentless dehumanization of black bodies cemented down like rain. Yet despite the several deaths depicted thus far, there is a ray of hope. In the following pages, it takes on three forms: the word “seed,” the illustration of a tree, and rain. These three visual forms indicate the cyclical nature of life as well as a metaphor for Hegel’s theory: birth, death and rebirth. The reader begins to understand these visual cues as the rebirth of the movement. Maintaining original emphasis of text. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 49 Page 183. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 48 28 Figure 5 As read before, Davis concludes Malcolm X’s funeral citing that through his death a seed had been planted. In the same way, Jackson’s funeral planted another seed: the idea for the Selma to Montgomery march. As organizers deliberate on how this march will happen, symbols of the seed continue to appear. On page 184, a tree branch with small blossoms and a blue jay are found with the words “The people of Selma were hurting. They needed to march.” And after the march is finalized, readers see the flower blossoms overlapping pages 186-187 as marchers prepare to meet in Selma. Although the reader will soon witness an ominous scene, they are hopeful that some redemption will come for these ordinary activists. 29 Book Three: The Testing of the Spirit 50 “Can you swim? John?”51 On page 196-197, readers finally reach the pinnacle scene first previewed in Book One: the march towards Edmund Pettus Bridge. These two pages are strategically depicted. The first half of each page features a borderless panel that emulates a splash page.52 In the first borderless panel on page 196, the reader sees the protestors peacefully walking towards the bridge. The next scene on page 196 depicts two adjacent panels, both in the form of trapezoids, mimicking the walk up and over the bridge, emphasized by the angle of the panels. One panel depicts the figures of protestors as they walk on the bridge and the next panel shows the faces of Hosea Williams and John Lewis leading. The following two panels show the scene from different angles. Similar to several camera angles within a film, the viewer sees this scene through the eyes of the protestors and an observer. Panel four shows a larger shot of the protestors on the bridge, emulating the second panel on the page. While panel five shows a view of the top bridge with the silhouettes of Lewis and Williams; mimicking the third panel. This section will cover scenes and images from page 191-206. The phrase “testing of the spirit” will be used interchangeably with golgotha. 51 Page 3 of Book One. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. 2013. March: Book One. March Trilogy 1. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions. 52 Refer back to footnote 23. Splash: or splash page is a large, often full-page illustration that opens and introduces a story. It is rarely less than half a page, and occasionally covers two pages. Often designed as a decorative unit, its purpose is to capture the reader’s attention and can be used to establish time, place and mood. 50 30 Figure 6 In the second borderless panel found on page 197, the reader arrives at the other side of the bridge and looks down at the authorities awaiting them. In the next panel, they finally reach the phrase that opened the entire series, “Can you swim?” As viewers read this question, it seems a little odd. Why would Williams ask Lewis this? On one hand, this question assumes an ominous encounter with those on the other side of the bridge. And on the other hand, it indicates the all too familiar reality of Jim Crow for blacks. Many never learned how to swim because they were prohibited from using segregated pool facilities. And thus, the two lead the group towards the state troopers, knowing they may not have the means to escape the violence that would ensue. In the next two pages, the two groups finally face one another; the peaceful protestors on one side and the armed state troopers on the other. One of the state troopers holds a megaphone demanding that the protestors disperse and turn back. Hosea Williams asks to have a word with the major and is denied. The trooper remarks, “there is no word to be had-- you have two minutes to 31 turn around and go back to your church.”53 In response, the protestors kneel and pray. On the next two pages, 200-201, troopers advance towards the kneeling protestors and the two sides quickly diverge. This collision is made evident through the illustrations and the shape of panels on the page. Similar to the panels on page 196-197, the panels here grow larger from left to right and indicate an upward motion. However, in contrast to the scene on the bridge this angle works to emphasize the towering motion of the troopers overtaking the protestors. As the panels grow larger, the reader sees hundreds of state troopers with gas masks, bats and clenched fists breaking outside the confines of the panel. The reader then sees their footsteps, determined and threatening. Finally, the encounter ends in chaos: protestors run and look behind them while state troopers make strides to attack them with their bats. One of these troopers reaches a startled John Lewis and swings his bat towards Lewis’ head. Quote found on page 198-199 of Book Three. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 53 32 Figure 7 On the first panel of page 201, the troopers bat hits Lewis’ face with a “KRAK.” The panels on this page are filled with motion. This motion is highlighted by the unique shape of panels and the multiple lines that demonstrate where weapons intend to land or the direction individuals run towards. Powell juxtaposes this scene with a panel depicting the chaos at large: several civilians being attacked by state troopers, tear gas being shot, and large audible sounds like “KRAK,” “FOOMP,” “THUD” and “WHAP.” In the next panel, Lewis puts his arm near his head to protect himself, but maintains eye contact with his attacker. In response, the trooper swings his bat in full force towards Lewis’ head, which results in the sound “SPLATT.” In the final panel, we see Lewis’ bloodied figure left on the ground in the midst of tear gas. This leads to the pinnacle scene of the series: Lewis’ encounter with death. John Lewis’ Golgotha54 On the next page, the reader sees a battered Lewis laying on the concrete, seemingly unconscious. In the splash page, Lewis writes “I thought I saw death.” This phrase is followed by two small panels highlighting Lewis’ hand and face, surrounded in the darkness of black ink. In the black background, readers see the phrase, “I thought I was going to die.”55 I establish that John Lewis’ Golgotha occurs from page 202-205. Page 202 in Book Three. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 54 55 33 Figure 8 This darkness envelopes the next page, with shades of grey and black clouds. In the next scene as these grey clouds surround Lewis’ body, readers see the abrupt cursive font, “Get up.” Lewis’ eyes immediately shoot open and he slowly gets up. In response, the words “Keep moving” follow in the same thin font. As Lewis rises, the scene shifts from the permanence of black ink to a stark white background. Powell’s illustration style dramatically changes; it seems rushed, frantic, and sparse. On the next page there are several lines that depict people in motion, juxtaposed against rounded lines, illustrating the clouds of tear gas surrounding Lewis. In the midst of all this chaos, Lewis continues walking wide-eyed and led by something. 34 Figure 9 This section of text, illustrates the pinnacle moment where the thesis and antithesis of Hegel’s theory physically collide on the page. The thesis (segregation) takes the physical form of state troopers and the antithesis (those struggling to destroy segregation) are represented as peaceful protestors. Similar to the images depicted during the Birmingham Campaign in Alabama, there is a clear division between the aggressors and the victims of violence. Not only does the reader see the application of Hegel’s theory here, they see Lewis’ personal encounter with death. While reading the words, “get up” and “keep moving,” the reader is forced to ask, who is speaking? And the only clear explanation Lewis gives is the spirit of history: a force pushing Lewis towards the synthesis of integration even through his golgotha. After this page, Lewis runs towards the church where he briefly gives a speech and is taken to the hospital. That march was soon referred to as “Bloody Sunday” and the scenes from the encounter were broadcasted all throughout the nation. After 35 hearing about this horrendous event, masses of white and black clergy, activists and sympathizers arrived in Selma the following days. This prompted a larger march that would eventually lead them to Montgomery. End of Book Three: Selma to Montgomery 56 Although the Civil Rights Movement did not end with the March from Selma to Montgomery, Lewis chooses to close the “past” with this scene for a few reasons: (1) it held personal significance to Lewis and his growth as a Civil Rights leader (2) it was a poignant collective memory for participants of the movement and (3) it was an image event that indicated a turn in the moral conscious of the nation. Tying into previous themes of death, sacrifice and violence in the series, readers see depictions of both the antithesis and the “testing of the spirit” throughout Book Three. And in this final scene, the reader sees the buds of its synthesis manifesting both physically and metaphorically. Physically, this takes the form of flower wreaths that Civil Rights leaders wear on their third and successful march from Selma to Montgomery.57 Metaphorically, the antithesis and “testing of the spirit,” lead to more protests and results in the Voting Rights Act of 1965 depicted on page 240-243.58 Thus, the seed planted in hopelessness, sacrifice and death during the funerals of Jimmie Lee Jackson, Malcolm X, and many others produced the buds of a march. This later provided the flowers of other events such as The Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Inauguration of President Barack Obama. However, it also produced potential for the present. As a culmination here, the reader understands the march as a memorial of sacrifice and way of situating continued synthesis in the present. In the final pages, Lewis leaves readers in the present past of Obama’s inauguration day, close to where the series begins. Lewis sits on his bed and listens to the many voicemails on his Discussing pages 228-243 within Book Three. Referenced on page 228-231 of Book Three. Images can be found in Appendix C. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 58 Images can be found in Appendix C. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 56 57 36 phone. Among them is the voice of Ted Kennedy: “Hi, John-- it’s Ted Kennedy calling. I know it’s early, but I was up. Couldn’t sleep. I was thinking of you. I was thinking of you and Martin. I was thinking about the years of work, the bloodshed… The people who didn’t live to see this day. I was thinking about Jack and Bobby…”59 Here, Kennedy provides the reader with one way of reflecting on the movement they witnessed. One that recognizes, humanizes, and honors blacks as citizens of the United States. The conclusion Lewis makes is not that the Civil Rights Movement is dead or in the past, but that it is still with us. Lewis’ story has shown us how far we’ve come,60 where we can go if we follow the spirit of history, and provides a space to contemplate the suffering in the process. The story isn’t clean or completely chronological. It works to create links, draw lines, and jarring juxtapositions between the nation’s past of discrimination and the past present of Obama’s inauguration. Lewis doesn’t make a clear conclusion whether Obama’s presidency is positive or negative, but he does make a compelling argument that Obama’s inauguration held significance in the history of our country. Yet, Lewis doesn’t stop there. As his dedication says, this series is for the past and future generations of the movement.61 The reader must reflect on what this movement means to the present moment they exist in. They cannot sit comfortably with Barack Obama’s inauguration day; they must ask themselves what they can do in the present to engage with the values of the Civil Rights Movement. As a result, it is up to future readers to act upon the lessons they have learned here and apply them to the dreams they hope to see implemented in the United States. President Barack Obama & Selma To commemorate the 50th anniversary of “Bloody Sunday” Obama had these words to say on the Edmund Pettus Bridge: “In one afternoon 50 years ago, so much of our turbulent history- the stain of slavery and anguish of civil war, the yoke of segregation and tyranny of Jim Crow the death Quote found on page 245 of Book Three. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. 60 Page 18-19 of Book One. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book One. March Trilogy. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2013. 61 Dedication first appears on page 3 of Book One (also found in Book Two and Three). Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book One. March Trilogy. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2013. 59 37 of four little girls in Birmingham, and the dream of a Baptist preacher- all that history met on this bridge. It was not a clash of armies, but a clash of wills; a contest to determine the true meaning of America.”62 In his own words, Obama depicts his version of Hegel’s theory: a clash of wills to determine America’s true meaning. “Bloody Sunday” was a powerful image event that indicated a turning point in the movement. By pursuing the movement, black protestors demonstrated a new truth in America and recontextualized what being a citizen was in the present. Through of March, readers see that the individuals depicted are no longer nameless faces lost in time. They are now named individuals of flesh and blood. By using the images, stories, and aesthetic of the Civil Rights Movement, it has become a compelling cause that continues into the present. Obama, “Remarks Commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Selma to Montgomery Marches for Voting Rights in Selma, Alabama.” 62 38 Conclusion There are many forms in which the Civil Rights Movement has been expressed and its history disseminated. However, visual rhetoric has been an especially powerful form. Visual images like comics, across historical narratives, have exposed a form of truth telling and witnessing that audiences must respond to. Although discussions of authenticity can be put into question, comics themselves don’t necessarily claim objectivity or subjectivity like a newspaper or historians. They work to complicate how we view ideas of objectivity and how we experience what we call the “real.” Many non-fictional comics beg the question, how can we learn about the past while honoring and understanding the emotional trauma of individual experiences? Is it ever possible? In exploring these questions, I turn to one concept discussed by Kirt H. Wilson who contextualizes the presidency of Barack Obama with the Civil Rights Movement. This concept is “slavery” which Wilson defines below: “Critical theorists of race have offered a controversial reinterpretation of the condition we call slavery. They argue that slavery’s most important features were never its legal or economic structures. The core elements of slavery were, instead, (a) the dehumanization of people of color, (b) a regime of terror, violence, and intimidation in which the slave was unable to protect his or her body, (c) the master’s control of the social, civil, and even personal relations that existed between the slave and others. Defined in this way, current theorists contend that slavery is not confined to the past; these conditions can and do continue.”63 In reading this definition of slavery, readers of March can see the traces of slavery that existed during the Civil Rights Movement, carry into the present. As March illustrates, black bodies were stripped of Page 6. Wilson, Kirt H. “Dreams of Union, Days of Conflict: Communicating Social Justice and Civil Rights Memory in the Age of Barack Obama.” National Communication Association, 2016, 13. 63 39 their humanity; they were beaten, arrested, harassed and killed. As Wilson continues the concept of slavery, he references Frederick Douglass and states that, “Frederick Douglass warned that slavery might not be dead. He said, ‘[They] would not call it slavery, but some other name. Slavery has been fruitful in giving itself names… and it will call itself by yet another name; and you and I and all of us had better wait and see what new form this old monster will assume, in what new skin this old snake will come forth next.’”64As read in this quote, present day citizens can still see forms of injustice in this nation. Whether that is the killing of black men by police officers, the stripping of voting rights for black voters in certain states, or the legacy of affirmative action for white citizens going unnamed and evidently absent for peoples of color by law. Lewis, Aydin, and Powell utilize image events of the Civil Rights Movement, throughout the comic book series, as a model of how others dealt with injustices. They demonstrate the ways of non-violence and sacrifice through events like the Freedom Ride of 1961 and Bloody Sunday and illustrate the extremes protestors were willing to take in order to see these values implemented. The readers of March recognize the compelling nature of the spirit of history that leads Lewis and fellow protestors through their golgotha and caused a moral shift in the nation. Through the juxtaposition of time, the authors frequently remind the reader of how moments in the past are entangled with the past present of Obama’s inauguration, but more importantly these moments are also entangled in the present future. Ultimately, the series leaves the reader with an obligation, in the present, to continue pursuing the values of the Civil Rights Movement they have just witnessed. As Lewis remarks in his memoir, “Professor Powell liked to quote Horace Mann on the shame one out to feel if one lives a life making no contribution to humanity. Be ashamed, he said, to leave this world having done nothing to improve the human condition. I take that message with me to this day when I go out to speak to student groups. Do some good, I tell them. Do something out of a sense of community, 64 Page 6. Ibid 40 something that is aimed beyond yourself. And be ashamed if you do not.”65 Through March we have learned the names of people who sacrificed their lives, we witnessed their pain, and their journey towards equality. And now, it is time for us to do something. To the past and future children of the movement. – John Lewis Page 65. Lewis, John. Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. 2015th ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1998. 65 41 Appendix A: Book Two This appendix features (1) a timeline from all the events written by the authors in Book Two (including events from the present past of 2009 which are highlighted in yellow and events from the past) (2) the names of individuals mentioned in order of appearance and (3) a small synopsis of the data. Timeline of Book Two: No. Page number Date Information i. 5-7 “Present” January 20, 2009 (10:17am) (U.S. House of Representatives) John Lewis shakes hand of fellow congressman and starts lining up to get seated outside. 1. 9 November 10, 1960 Lewis and other SNCC members use non-violent sit-ins at fast food restaurants and cafeterias to end segregation in Nashville, just as they had done for lunch counters. 2. 10 Fall 1960 “Contentious Presidential election campaign between Vice President Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy (10).” 3. 17-25 February 1961 (Nashville, TN) SNCC youth holding “stand-ins” at local segregated movie theatres. The Ten Commandments by Cecil B. Demille showing at theatre. 4. 25 February 21, 1961 Lewis spends his 21st birthday in jail for participating in the stand-ins. ii. 26-27 “Present” January 20, 2009 (10:21am) (U.S. Capitol) Congressman John Lewis walks down to his seat at the inauguration with other state representatives, senators, and other VIP. 5. 28-30 April 29, 1961 (Somewhere outside Nashville, Tennessee) Lewis gets dropped off at a bus station outside of Nashville to head towards WA D.C for the Freedom Rides 42 6. 31 April 30, 1961 Arrives in WA D.C at the Fellowship House (run by Quakers for their pacifist organizations) for the Freedom Rides 7. 29-30 March 1960 Saw advertisement for Freedom Rides in SNCC magazine: “CORE was seeking volunteers to test the supreme court decision from the previous year Boynton v. Virginia, which outlawed segregation and racial discrimination on buses and in bus terminals (30).” 8. 35-37 May 4, 1961 All Freedom Riders arrive at the Trailways Bus Station in WA D.C. to get bus tickets. They broke up into two smaller groups heading to different southern states. Letters describing their act of civil disobedience were sent to President, Attorney General, FBI Director, Interstate Commerce Commission, and both presidents of Greyhound and Trailways Bus Companies. But no response was received. 9. 42-43 May 9, 1961 Lewis leaves for an interview in Philadelphia for a two-year volunteer program in India. 10. 44-50, (46) May 14, 1961 (Mother’s Day) The Freedom Ride bus is fire bombed and attacked by local “hoodlums.” This was the day that Lewis hoped to join other Freedom Riders again. iii. 50-51 “Present” January 20, 2009 President-Elect Barack Obama is introduced, he walks down, is congratulated by John Lewis, and the two hug. 11. 52-58 May 17, 1961 (Birmingham City Limits) SNCC members continue Freedom Rides and are stopped by cops. Two riders were taken to jail immediately for sitting together. The other riders were forced to stay on the bus for a few hours at the bus station. 12. 59-62 May 18, 1961 (11:30pm) Sheriff Bull Connor arrests Freedom Riders for their own “protection.” He then releases them, and drives them to the border of Tennessee- in the middle of nowhere. 13. 67-69 May 19, 1961 (3:04pm) The riders returned to Birmingham Greyhound station. Bus delayed till 5pm but no driver is willing to drive. Bus for 5pm is also cancelled 43 14. 70-79 May 20, 1961 (8:30am) (9:05am: 5 miles outside Montgomery, AL) Freedom Rides resumes. Bus is escorted by police and helicopters on I-65 Southbound to next bus station. Riders get off bus and are immediately attacked by a mob. iv. 79-82 “Present” January 20, 2009 Past May 20, 1961 15. 83-90 May 21, 1961 Aretha Franklin Sings “My Country, Tis of Thee” while images of riders being attacked are intertwined (visceral resignification of song lyrics). (First Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama) 1,500 people packed in church as MLK Jr. came to visit at Ralph Abernathy’s Church. Angry mob outside threatens the supporters inside. State Marshalls are called to come protect the crowd inside the church. 16. 91 May 23, 1961 (Montgomery, Alabama) Press Conference held to inform public of continued March. 17. 92-94 May 24, 1961 (Jackson, Mississippi) Lewis arrives at Jackson Bus Station. Bus of people ahead had been taken to jail. The next group of riders was arrested too. 27 riders were convicted for disturbing the peace and sentenced to a $200 each, and a “suspended sentence of 60 days in jail (97).” 18. 99-102 June 15, 1961 (Mississippi State Penitentiary, Parchman Farm) As more riders were arrested and sent to Hinds County Jail following the first group, they were all transferred to the State Penitentiary known as the: “21,000 acres of Bull whip-wielding guards and human bondage (99).” 19. 103 June 24, 1961 (Mississippi State Penitentiary.) Lewis sings in jail cell with fellow cell mates. 20. 107-108 July 7, 1961 “Bond was posted on our behalf” and the group was set free from disturbing the peace (108). 44 21. 109 September 22, 1961 Federal government responded to national movement. Attorney General and ICC rules to enforce supreme court’s decision in Boynton. Decision passed on this date. 22. 113 End of 1961 MLK endorsed idea of getting black people to vote. Caused a divide in SNCC. Group 1: decided to coordinate other direct-action events. Group 2: would work on voter registration. 23. 117-118 April 27-29, 1962 SNCC holds a conference in Atlanta, GA for its second-year anniversary. Jim Lawson, founding leader and influencer, is not invited to attend. Students questioning if SNCC should be non-violent. 24. 119-121 Summer of 1962 (Albany, Georgia) Violence escalates during the summer; several events occur. For example: an attorney representing a SNCC staffer meets with the sheriff in his office and was beaten. Four homes of Albany-area voter registration organizers were shot at. Nights later, the home Charles Sherrod was visiting was shot at. (Cairo, Illinois) Protest at a local segregated swimming pool in Cairo. A photo at the protest was taken and became the most popular poster of the movement. 25. 122 September 1962 300 US Marshals were injured trying to protect James Meredith (the first African American student to enroll at the University of Mississippi). 26. 123 End of 1962 People losing non-violence discipline, starting to question whether SNCC should be a multi-racial organization 27. 123-125 January 14, 1963 (Alabama State Capitol) Inauguration of George C. Wallace as the 45th governor of Alabama. Recorded saying “segregation today, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever (125).” Displayed very strong oppositional rhetoric against organizations like SNCC. 45 28. 126-127 April 9, 1963 April 10, 1963 29. 128-130 April 12, 1963 (Good Friday) (Birmingham Campaign in Alabama) Dr. King Jr. and SCLC brought people from all corners of the movement for the Birmingham Campaign. The first marches for voter’s registration happen on April 10, 1963. (Zion Hill Baptist Church Birmingham, AL) King leads the next march through the streets of Alabama. Connor obtained a court order prohibiting all protest activities and set the bond for 8x the normal maximum. King was arrested and sent to jail where he wrote “Letters from Birmingham Jail.” 30. 132-135 May 2, 1963 (16th St. Baptist Church) Almost 1,000 Birmingham black children marched through the streets of Birmingham and were arrested that day. Seen as an embarrassment to the city. 31. 136-138 May 3, 1963 Protest happen again; Bull Connor uses hoses and dogs on children protestors. Event was televised nationally for the country to see. It was astounding, “it looked like footage from a war (138).” 32. 139-141 June 12, 1963 (1st Baptist Church Nashville, Tennessee) Medgar Evers (a field secretary for NAACP in Jackson, Mississippi) was shot in the driveway of his home. 33. 141 June 11, 1963 34. 141-142 June 14, 1963 Dr. King Jr. announces plans for massive march on WA D.C. (Outside Murfreesboro, TN) Lewis finds himself in a car accident going to an emergency meeting to become chairman of SNCC. v. 35. 143-144 “Present” 144 (U.S. Capitol, Washington D.C.) January 20, 2009 (12:04pm) Barack Obama takes the oath of office and shakes the hand of the Chief Justice of the United States. June 1963 Lewis becomes Chairman of SNCC and is relocated to Atlanta to work $10 a week. 46 36. 147-148 June 22, 1963 Representatives of SNCC and SCLC visit Kennedy to talk about march in WA D.C and Civil Rights Bill proposal. 37. 150-151 July 2, 1963 A meeting for march organizers was called in New York City. They were later called the “Big Six” which included: A. Philip Randolph, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Roy Wilkins, Jim Farmer, Whitney Young, and John Lewis (only Lewis is alive to this day). 38. 152 (Justice Department WA D.C.) July 22, 1963 Lewis is invited to help with negotiations for a SNCC protest movement in Maryland. He talks to Attorney General R. Kennedy and comes to respect him. 39. 153 August 13, 1963 FBI trying to stop march by outing Bayard Rustin to nation. 40. 158-175 August 28, 1963 (March on Washington) People marched all the way to the capitol building and were greeted by performances and speeches. Each of the Big Six leaders spoke; John Lewis was coerced into changing his speech by other leaders. King was the last speaker of the day, giving his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. 176-177 “Present” President Barack Obama begins Inaugural Address. vi. January 20, 2009 41. In Total: 179 (179 pages) September 15, (Youth Sunday at 16th Baptist Church in Birmingham, 1963 Alabama) (Sunday 10:22am) Bomb goes off in church. Image of Christ-like figure on a stained-glass window with the face gone depicted here (179). Events/Dates Pages in the past: 166.5 (93% in past) mentioned in the 42 dates mentioned in past (spanning from 1960-1963, past: three years) Pages in the present: 12.5 (7% in present) 6 events/dates mentioned in present past (all same day) At least 48 different events highlighted in the comic. 47 Synopsis of data: Book Two has a total of 179 pages; featuring at least 48 specified dates. 166.5 of those pages (93%) are depicted in the past, highlighting 42 events between 19601963. 12.5 pages (7%) of Book Two depict a moment in the present past of Barack Obama’s inauguration. In total there are 6 specific events that occur on the same day. Generally, Book Two highlights the urgency young students had in participating in the movement. They planned many sit-ins, protests, and demonstrations. Overall, Book Two shows the fulfillment of those events. List of Individuals mentioned in Book Two: No. Page Number Person Importance 1. 6,7 Maurice & Nita Probably a Congressman and Congresswoman waiting to get seated for the inauguration ceremony 2. 10 10, 37, 140 (141), 145, (147-148), 153, 168, (174) Richard Nixon John F. Kennedy Vice President of the United States Senator (Referenced as Mr. President and President Kennedy) 3. 22-23 Reverend Will Campbell White preacher who tried to convince SNCC members to stop protesting at the local movie theatre because it put blacks in physical danger. Lewis refused and decided to continue marching. 4. 28-29, 102, 116, 117, 126, 131 Jim (Bevel) Person driving Lewis in a car (28). Friend who also found himself in “Parchman Farm” with Lewis and other Freedom Riders in Mississippi. 5. 28-30, 117 Bernard Lafayette Jr. Friend of John Lewis who dropped him off (28-30). Civil Rights activist as well. 6. 30,57-58, 84, 88, 124-125, Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth Lewis and friend Bernard wrote Shuttleworth a letter with the idea of sending a group of integrated students to ride buses testing the Boynton v. Virginia decision before the Freedom Ride of 1961 was created. 48 7. 32, 33, 36, 47,49, 84, 85, 88, 90, 92, 150, 166 James Farmer Executive Director of organization: Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and leader of Freedom Ride 1961. Was called by SNCC leader Diane Nash to start the Freedom Rides again after bus was firebombed in Anniston. Farmer arrived in Montgomery after violence against Freedom Riders ensued and decides last minute, to join the Freedom Riders again. Also member of Big Six; spoke at March on Washington. 8. 32, 38 Joe Perkins CORE Field Secretary; Kentucky native who left grad school. 9. 33 Jim Peck Participant of CORE’s first Freedom Ride in 1947. Ended up in a chain gang with fellow participants. Freedom Rider in 1961. 10. 33 Elton Cox Minister from North Carolina. Freedom Rider in 1961. 11. 33 Dr. Walter Berman & Wife Frances Professor from University of Michigan and his wife. Freedom Rider in 1961. 12. 33, 34 Jimmy McDonald Folk singer from New York. Freedom Rider in 1961. 13. 33 Charles Person Physics student from Morehouse College. Freedom Rider in 1961. 14. 33 Ed Blankenheim CORE staff member. Freedom Rider in 1961. 15. 33 Genevieve Hughes CORE field secretary. Freedom Rider in 1961. 16. 33, 36 Albert Bigelow Pacifist arrested in 1958 for driving a skiff into a nuclear testing zone protesting the use of atomic weapons. Freedom Rider in 1961. 17. 33 Hank Thomas A Howard University senior 18. 34 Gandhi (102), Thoreau, Emerson Intellectual thinkers who were used as a model of the non-violence in the Civil Rights Movement 49 19. 37,49, 68, 85, 86, 95, 109, 113,148, 152, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy 49, 68, 77 Aide to Attorney General John Seigenthaler Brother of President John F. Kennedy and Attorney General. Was sent a letter about the Freedom Rides in 1961 and did not respond initially. After the firebombed bus in Anniston, Kennedy and aide worked to get riders out of Birmingham. Tried to negotiate with students to cool off the Freedom Rides (among other demonstrations). Became more sympathetic towards the cause of the movement. Book Two is dedicated to Aide to Attorney General, John Seigenthaler. Was an aide who came to Birmingham during the second round of the Freedom Rides in 1961 to protect Freedom Riders. 20. 37 FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover Look in Appendixes B. 21. 47, 49-50*, 54, 64, 85, 113, 116, 117, 126 Diane Nash SNCC organizer 22 48 (58-59), 60, 70, Eugene “Bull” 127,128, 131(132- Connor 138) Birmingham’s Chief of Police. “Everyone was afraid of him-- even the governor (48).” Ran for mayor and lost, controlled the city’s police and was a bully, “erratic, irresponsible, and just plain mean (127).” 23. 51, 143 (144), President-Elect of U.S. Barack H. Obama Referred to as “Mr. President” 24. 52 Jim Zwerg Paul Brooks Two Freedom Riders who were taken to jail almost immediately for sitting next to one another “violating state law” on the bus. 25. 47 (unnamed), 52 Dr. Bergman “One passenger was knocked down at my feet by twelve hoodlums, and his face was beaten into a bloody red pulp (47).” Bloody from first bus attack in Anniston, and was brutally beaten again on the terminal floor in Birmingham. Sustained permanent brain damage and a stroke that would paralyze him for the rest of his life (52). 26. 54, 57 Salynn McCollum Fellow Rider who had a different ticket than other Riders and went out to call Diane Nash to let her know of the situation (other riders were kept on the bus for several hours). 50 27. 63-65 Couple from the Let Freedom Riders into their home in the middle of outskirts of the nights and let them call SNCC leader Diane Tennessee Nash to find a way back to Birmingham. 28. 65 Leo Lillard Young guy who drove his car all the way from Nashville to pick up the Freedom Riders 29. 68, 83, 88 Governor John Patterson (of Montgomery) Attorney General Aide, John Seigenthaler, talks to Governor Patterson in Birmingham to let Freedom Riders go because buses were being cancelled and delayed. 30. 79 Floyd Mann Alabama’s Public Safety Director who saved the lives of Freedom Riders after they arrived in Montgomery 31. 81 Aretha Franklin (unnamed) Sang “My Country Tis of Thee” at the inauguration of President Barack Obama. 32. 83-86, 88, 90-91, 95, 113,124-125, 128-129, 141, 147, 150, 151, 172-173 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Flew to Montgomery after hearing about the violence at bus stations in Anniston. Was a founding member of March on Washington and part of the “Big Six” who spoke. Was also an influential member of the SCLC. 33. 83, 88 Ralph Abernathy Mass meeting held at his church after Freedom Riders reach Montgomery, Alabama 34. 84, 90-91 Freedom Riders* The term “Freedom Riders” is used many more times in Book Two. However, these are a few pages where the collective term is emphasized. 35. 88 Wyatt Walker Spoke at the Mass meeting at Ralph Abernathy’s church following the violence against Freedom Riders at Montgomery bus station. 36. 91, 112, 118 Reverend Jim Lawson Leader of the non-violence workshops that created SNCC and inspired other non-violent movements. 37. 100 Fred Jones Superintendent of Mississippi State Penitentiary who comes to greet Freedom Riders as they arrive. 38. 104 Fred Leonard The two wanted to keep their mattress while all the other Freedom Riders gave them up. Stokely Carmichael Howard University Student who wanted to keep his mattress. Was not disciplined in non-violence. 104, 112, 117 51 39. 113 Ella Baker Suggested that SNCC members create two branches of their organization; one focused on direct action and the other focused on voter registration. 40. 113 Charlie Jones SNCC leader who would help organize voter registration. 41. 114 Amzie Moore A filling station owner and local organizer who came from Cleveland, Mississippi to a SNCC meeting to ask for help. 42. 114, 115 Bob Moses Soft-spoken 26 year-old from Harlem. Received a graduate degree in Philosophy from Harvard and came to help SNCC. Helped lead a protest in response to a verdict that freed Herbert Lee’s killer. Later Moses was beaten by a mob and arrested with 119 local students. 43. 114 Emmett Till 16 year-old boy who was killed in Money, Mississippi and body found in the waters of the Tallahatchie. 44. 114 Governor Ross Barnett (19601964) Gives speech talking about voter registration for blacks. Encouraging original segregationist ways. 45. 115 Herbert Lee Local black farmer in Liberty, Mississippi who was helping Bob Moses register voters and who was later shot to death, through the head. 46. 115 E.H. Hurst A member of the Mississippi State Legislature who shot Herbert Lee dead. Claimed that Lee attacked him with a tire iron. 47. 115 Charlie McDew Led protest in response to verdict that freed Herbert Lee’s killer. Later beaten by a mob and arrested with 119 local students. 48. 115 Bob Zellner White SNCC member from Alabama who helped lead protest in response to verdict that freed Herbert Lee’s killer. Later beaten by a mob and arrested with 119 local students. 49. 117, 154, 164, 165 Jim Forman One of several new members and voices of SNCC; became Executive Secretary and helped Lewis with speech on the March on Washington 52 50. 117, 119 Charles Sherrod One of several new members and voices of SNCC. During the Summer of 1962, a home Sherrod visited and slept in (near Albany-area of Georgia) was shot at. 51. 117 Ruby Smith One of several new members and voices of SNCC. 52. 117 Southern Conference Educational Fund* One of several new members and voices of SNCC. 53. 117 Students for Democratic Society (SDS)* One of several new members and voices of SNCC. 54. 119, 169 C.B. King Attorney representing SNCC staffer who was arrested. Was beaten by county sheriff in Albany (left half-dead). 55. 119 Bill Hansen SNCC staffer who was arrested 56. 120 Danny Lyon A new staff photographer for SNCC nicknamed Dandelion. Took a photo of SNCC members at Cairo Swimming Pool protesting for integration. Picture became one of the most popular posters of the movement. 57. 122 James Meredith First African American to enroll at the University of Mississippi 58. 124-125 George Corley Wallace Jr. 45th Governor of Alabama. Inaugurated on January 14, 1963 and cited saying “segregation today, segregation tomorrow, segregation tomorrow.” 59. 126-127 Al Hibbler Famous Jazz singer who was blind, and joined Birmingham Campaign protests. 60. 131-138 Teenagers and children Young individuals who utilized the ways of nonviolence to show the necessity for voter registration. 61. 139-140 Medgar Evers Field Secretary for the NAACP in Jackson, Mississippi. Evers was shot by a sniper as he was coming home from a meeting in his driveway. 53 62. 146-147, 150-151, 164, 165 A. Philip Randolph Statesman, founded the Brotherhood of the Sleeping Car Porters in 1925 “incredibly influential civil rights and labor organization (146).” If born another time, he could have been president. First threatened to organize a march on the capital in 1941, facing off with President Roosevelt (146). 63. 149, 155 Malcolm X Person deliberately not invited to visit the President in planning march. 64. 150, 151, 163 Roy Wilkins Member and representative of the NAACP for March on Washington. Part of the Big Six. 65. 150, 151 Whitney Young Member and representative of the Urban League for March on Washington. Part of the Big Six. 66. 151-151, 153, 154,156, 175 Bayard Rustin Devote pacifist and brilliant organizer (also gay). Helped with planning of Randolph’s first march in 1941. 67. 153 Strom Thurmond of South Carolina On August 13th, spoke on Senate floor, with evidence of FBI wiretaps, attacking Bayard Rustin for being gay and entering his arrest record into congressional record: outing him to the nation. 68. 154, Nancy Stern SNCC Staffer helped Lewis with speech for March on Washington. Julian Bond SNCC’s Communications Director also helped Lewis with speech. Pratha Hall Helped Lewis with speech Courtland Cox Joyce Ladner Other SNCC Members who helped Lewis on his speech (164,165) (165) 69. 154 Eleanor Holmes One of Bayard Rustin’s assistants who helped Lewis with his speech. 70. 162 Mahalia Jackson Odetta Joan Baez Bob Dylan Josh White Peter, Paul, and Mary SNCC Freedom Singers (7 in total) Performers at the March on Washington 54 71. 168 (Party of) Eastland Names mentioned in Lewis’ speech 72. 168 (Party of) Javits Names mentioned in Lewis’ speech 73. 168 (Party of) Goldwater Names mentioned in Lewis’ speech (169) 74. 169 Wife of Slater King Local police officials kicked and assaulted pregnant wife of Slater King. 75. 179 Denise Addie Unknown names called out at the 16th St. Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama Total of Individuals mentioned: 75+19= 94 people mentioned I include this list to illustrate how many individuals Lewis, Aydin, and Powell work to name and explain their role in the movement. Many of these people find their way in Book Three (which I mention in Appendix B). Overall, the reader understands that March is not only John Lewis’ story, it is the story of many. 55 Appendix B: Book Three This appendix features (1) a timeline from all the events written by the authors in Book Three (including events from the “present” of 2009 which are highlighted in yellow and events from the past) (2) the names of individuals mentioned in order of appearance and (3) a small synopsis of the data. Timeline of Book Three: No. Page Number Date Information 1. 4-10 September 15, 1963 (Birmingham, Alabama) Bomb goes off at 16th Street Baptist Church, during its annual “Youth Day,” killing 4 young girls and injuring other church members. In total 21 children were injured. 2. 12 September 15, 1963 Teenager Eagle scouts shoot 13-year old Virgil Lamar Ware after attending a Klan Rally. 3. 14 (undated) Police officer who shot and killed 16-year old Johnny Robinson, claimed it was an accident and was never indicted. 4. 17 September 18, 1963 Vigil/Memorial held for the four young girls who are killed on Youth Sunday. i. 20-25 “Present” Group sings national anthem. Barack Obama shakes hands with John Lewis and says “thank you” (22). January 20, 2009 5. 27-3 September 23, 1963 Nightly mass meetings begin. Local black leaders request that military personnel from nearby air force base no longer be allowed to take leave in Selma because the city was defying federal law by enforcing segregation. The request was ignored. Lewis speaks at one of the mass meetings as chairman of SNCC. 56 6. 33-35 September 24, 1963 Demonstration outside Dallas county courthouse leads to 30 arrests. This is the first time Lewis was arrested in Selma for “unlawful assembly.” He is taken to Selma Prison Farm. 7. 36-41 October 7, 1963 SNCC decided to use the next voter registration day to stage its largest mobilization yet. The effort was quickly called “Freedom Day.” (36) End of October (4345) Conception of “Freedom Vote” (mock vote) was created and planned to happen in Mississippi 8. 49-50 November 22, 1963 Three shots were fired at President Kennedy’s Motorcade in downtown Dallas, Texas; Kennedy was assassinated. At the time, Lewis was in Nashville for a court hearing. 9. 55-56 December 22, 1963 (Atlanta, Georgia) Demonstration held at the “Toddle House” restaurant owned by Dobbs Corporation 10. 57-59 December 31, 1963 Lewis released from jail in time to attend last SNCC executive meeting of the year. Finalizing plans for the Mississippi Freedom Project that would begin. 11. 60 April 16, 1964 (Washington, D.C.) Public announcement of Freedom Summer Project at the American Society of Newspaper Editors Convention. 12. 65 April 26, 1964 The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was officially created. Their goal was to get real votes through the Mississippi Summer Project (aka Freedom Summer). They hoped to claim seats at the National Convention through legal grounds. 13. 66-67 June 13, 1964 (Oxford, Ohio at Mississippi Summer Project Training Camp) 300 students came for first weekend of training 14. 68-70, (71) June 21, 1964 (Neshoba County, MS) First volunteers of the Freedom Summer arrive in Mississippi. The three volunteers for Freedom Summer are stopped by police and go unaccounted for at location. 57 15. 74-76 June 24, 1964 (Philadelphia, Mississippi) Convoy of cars (volunteers) go to search for missing volunteers. New information given: burned out shell of CORE station wagon was pulled from the waters of Bogue Chitto Creek but no bodies were found (76-84). 16. 81 June 24, 1964 (2am: Ruleville) “A car driven by whites circled noisily around the negro community for about two hours, hurling bottles at cars and into homes. Seven incidents were reported to the police, but they never arrived on the scene (81).” (9:15pm) Frequently used CORE care struck by bullets two miles outside of Jackson (on the road to Canton) 17. 82 June 24, 1964 40 M-1 rifles and 1,000 rounds of ammunition stolen from national guard armory in the morning. 18. 82 June 23, 1964 (Jackson, Mississippi) Black man hit twice in head by gun fire after following car driven by two white men who had just fired into black café. 19. 85 July 2, 1964 Civil rights act of 1964 signed into law 20. 86 July 6, 1964 Protest outside of Dallas county (Selma Courthouse). 21. 94 August 4, 1964 Three bodies found by FBI, 6 miles from where the Civil rights workers were last seen on June 21st. Found at the site of a dam, 100 yards off route 21. 22. 97 August 6, 1964 MFDP held state convention to elect delegates to send to Atlantic City. Joe Rauh, Lewis, and Ella Baker speak. 23. 100 August 7, 1964 (1st Union Missionary Baptist Church Meridian, Mississippi) Funeral for James Chaney, one of the three COFO volunteers who was murdered. 24. 102 July 14, 1964 (Republican National Convention in Daly City, CA) New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller tried to sway party of Lincoln to stand up to conservative extremists. 58 25. 104 August 14, 1964 President Johnson calls Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota to discuss the present actions of COFO in Atlantic City. 26. 105 August 21, 1964 168 delegates of Democratic Party arrive at old gem hotel in Atlantic City. 27. (106-115) August 22, 1964 Press conference held where convention organizers would give their testimony. The following people make case to nation and committee: Aaron Henry, Reverend Ed King, Fannie Lou Hamer, Widow Rita, James Farmer, Roy Wilkins, and Dr. King 28. 109 June 9, 1963 Fannie Lou Hamer attended a voter registration workshop and headed back to Mississippi. Nine others were traveling by the continental trail ways bus with her and were stopped by police at the bus stop in Winona. Highway patrolman arrested six of them and put them in jail, where Hamer recalls how she and others were physically and sexually assaulted. 29. (122) August 24, 1964 68 MFDP Delegates voted and refused to take proposed compromise offered by Johnson and committee members. The delegates do a sit-in. 30. 124 August 26, 1964 (Democratic Convention) This indicated a turning Point in the movement for Lewis. The delegation took the floor, watching as Lyndon B. Johnson was nominated by acclamation. 31. 139 November 22, 1964 Lewis arrived back to U.S. after his trip across the continent of Africa. Found that a lot of things had changed while he was gone. 32. 141 December 4, 1964 Sheriff Rainey, Deputy Price, and 19 others were arrested in connection with the Mississippi murders of 3 CORE volunteers. 33. 141-142 December 10, 1964 Judge Harold Cox dismissed charges against 21 men. Dr. King received the Nobel Peace Prize on the same day; the second African American to receive this award, after Ralph Bunche in 1950. 34. 146 December 28, 1964 Dr. King met with different groups in Selma to present a plan: The project for an Alabama political freedom movement. 59 35. 146 January 2, 1965 Mass meeting to break Judge Hare’s injunction held at Brown Chapel AME. Their focus would be on voter registration and mass demonstrations in Dallas County. 36. 148 January 18, 1965 Mass protest occurs. Group stays in the alleyway next to the courthouse; no one is seen or registered. 37. 154-156 January 19, 1965 Second mass protest staged. Group stayed on sidewalk; police arrested more than 60 people but released them that day thanks to the NAACP’s legal defense fund. 38. 157 January 20, 1965 (Inauguration Day) Johnson sworn in for official first term. Also, day of another march to county courthouse where group tried to enter through front door instead of side door. 39. 159-162 January 22, 1965 Another march to county courthouse. This time with black teachers who held tooth-brushes. But no one was arrested. 40. 164 January 25, 1965 Another protest where 250 people picket outside the courthouse. 41. 166 January 26, 1965 Another protest where Lewis is arrested. 42. 167-169 February 1, 1965 Lewis goes to fundraiser in CA for SNCC (who was nearly broke). Later in the week, Malcolm X visits Selma. 43. 170-171 February 16, 1965 Sheriff Clark comes back to the Dallas County Courthouse after his collapse from chest pains and meets protestors at courthouse. 44. 174-177 February 18, 1965 (Marion, AL 30 miles from Selma) A rally was held protesting the arrest of a SCLC worker James Orange. Jimmie Lee Jackson, a 26 year-old army veteran was shot and almost killed running from the rally and into a restaurant nearby. Died a few days later. 45. 178-180 February 21, 1965 (John Lewis’ birthday) Hears news that Malcolm X is assassinated by armed gunmen in New York City, while he is on his way to Georgia. Jimmie Lee Jackson dies during funeral of Malcolm X. 60 46. 181-183 March 3, 1965 Jimmie Lee Jackson’s funeral service 47. 183 March 3-7, 1965 Four days of planning and discussing march disagreement among SNCC members. 48. 185 March 6, 1965 (Frazier Cafe Society, Atlanta, Georgia) Lewis meets with SNCC to convince them to join the March ii. 188-190 “Present” U.S. Capitol Statuary Hall (1:17pm) January 20, 2009 49. 191-209 March 7, 1965 (Selma, Alabama) March from Selma to Montgomery: Demonstrators were beaten by law enforcement and the event was called Bloody Sunday. Many people were injured and housed in Brown Chapel. Lewis was sent to the hospital for injury. 50. 212-218 March 9, 1965 More than 2,000 people assembled in Selma for second march. Called “Turn around Tuesday” where the court had not agreed to the march so Dr. King made an agreement with federal official to march only to the Edmond Pettus Bridge. Lewis was released from the hospital that night, while James Reeb was beaten and died the next day. 51. 226 March 16, 1965 (Baptist Church, Montgomery, Alabama) Meeting with protesters where Jim Foreman spoke in anger. Dr. King then comes and announces that the judge granted Selma a march. 52. 228-232 March 21, 1965 (Two weeks after Bloody Sunday Selma, Alabama) Start of March to Montgomery 7 miles completed. 53. 234-239 March 25, 1965 Marchers reach capitol and speeches given by people. Viola Liuzzo, 39, mother from Detroit is shot in the head and killed. 54. 240 August 6, 1965 (4.5 months after end of March) 1965 Voting Rights Act signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. iii. 244-245 “Present” Washington D.C. (6:38pm) January 20, 2009 61 In total: 246 pages Events/Dates mentioned: At least 57 dates mentioned Pages in the past: 237 (96% in past) 54 dates mentioned in past (spanning from 1963-1965, two years) Pages in the present: 9 (4% in present) 3 events/dates mentioned in present past (all same day) Synopsis of data: Book Three has a total of 246 pages; featuring at least 57 specified dates. 237 of those pages (96%) are depicted in the past, highlighting 54 events between 19631965. 9 pages (4%) in Book Three depict a moment in the present past of Barack Obama’s inauguration. In total there are 3 specific events that occur on the same day. Generally, Book Three shows less dates within the present and twelve more dates in the past then Book Two. Through the excessive list of events in the past, the reader sees that the past informs the present of Obama’s inauguration. Book Three is fatigue-like with many scenes of violence, death, and hopelessness, but slowly gets the reader to the conclusion of the present past. Names of Individuals mentioned in Book Three: *not including John Lewis* No. Page Number Person/Number of appearances Importance 1. Denise McNair (6,16) Addie Mae Collins Carole Robertson Cynthia Wesley The names of the four young black girls killed during the Church bombing at 16th St. Baptist Church. 6-7, 9,16, 51 16 (18) 2. 12 Virgil Lamar Ware 13 year-old boy shot by teenage eagle scouts. 3. 14 Johnny Robinson 16 year-old boy shot and killed by police officer. 4. 15, 129 Julian Bond SNCC Communications Director 5. 18,147, 182, 194, 212, 217, 220-221, 226, 235 George Wallace Governor of Alabama 62 6. 19, 43, 163 Diane Nash Former SNCC member (married to James Bevel) and now SCLC member. 7. 19, 47, 163, 182, 184, 192-193 James Bevel Former SNCC member. Member of SCLC, married to Diane Nash. 8. (22-23), 188-190 President Barack Obama 9. 26, 27, 38-39, 86, 148, 154,158, 162, 171-172, 212 Jim Clark Sheriff of Dallas County. Described as mean, violent and easily provoked. “He was made all the more dangerous by the sundry gang of white men he deputized for the sole purpose of doing whatever it took to stop black people from voting (26).” 10. 26 Bull Connor Look at Appendix A. 11. 27, 220 (Colonel) Al Lingo Part of the Alabama State Troopers who led a brutal response provoking local teenagers to picket the front of county courthouse (in Alabama). 12. 28, 81 Defense Secretary Robert McNamara 13. 36 James Baldwin (and brother) Renowned author came to support “Freedom Day” the largest mobilization yet to get black voters registered. 14. 38 Major Joe Smelley (State trooper) State trooper in charge on October 7, 1963 when blacks waited outside Alabama courthouse to register and vote 15. 39, Jim Forman (129,183-184, 215, 226, 229) Part of SNCC Local businesswoman who had been organizing registration efforts in Alabama for decades. Made an appeal to Sheriff Clark as black citizens were forced to waited in line to register and vote in the heat (without water). Amelia Boynton (148, 155, 235) 16. 40 Avery Williams Chico Neblett Two SNCC field secretaries who tried to give black citizens food and water as they waited in the heat to register and vote. Were met by law enforcement and beaten. 63 17. 42, 60, 90, 114, 122 Roy Wilkins (“Big Six”) Member and leader of NAACP who received donations after March on Washington and did not distribute the funds to smaller less funded organizations. 18. 43, 53, 71, 129 Bob Moses A civil rights activist who spent 1960-1963 in Mississippi organizing SNCC chapters and was also head of Council of Federated Organizations (COFO); a coalition of SNCC, SCLC, CORE, and NAACP activists for coordinating voting rights efforts. Described as “smart and gentle, he avoided the spotlight partly as a ‘personal philosophy-- and partly because being too well-known in Mississippi could be deadly (43).” 19. 43-44, 57 Al Lowenstein A white activist and former dean at Stanford University. Worked with Moses to create a “mock election” in Mississippi at the same time as the actual state wide elections. Proposed that thousands of students be poured out into Mississippi to force a shutdown between local and federal governments. 20. 47-48, 99, 107113, 114, 122, 129, 220 Fannie Lou Hamer “She heard James Bevel speak in 1962 and was so moved that she went to the courthouse in Indianola to attempt to register to vote. When word got around about what she tried to do, she was fired from her job, arrested, and severely beaten (47).” She was part of SNCC, one of the most hard-working dedicated activists Lewis ever knew. 21. 49 Lester McKinney Picked up Lewis from the airport on November 22, 1963 (the day Kennedy was assassinated). 22. 49-52, 104, 245 President John F. Kennedy Assassinated on November 22, 1963. Seen as a symbol of hope for many people in the United States at the time. 23. 51 Medgar Evers Black civil rights activist who was shot and killed in the driveway of his house (was mentioned in Book Two). 24. 52, 54, 81, 85, 90, President Lyndon 104, 118-122, 138, Baines Johnson 145, 156, 169, 221(-224), 240-241 Southerner and Texan who promised to pass a Civil Rights Bill. However, he blocked some Civil Rights legislation during his time as a congressman. 64 25. 57 Dr. John Blyth Created a proposal that developed a six-week intensive literacy education program, calling them the “Freedom Schools” 26. 60, 81, 138, 245 Robert Kennedy Lewis meets with Attorney General and brother of John F. Kennedy at the American Society of Newspaper Editors Convention. 27. 60 Whitney Young Leader of another organization, also supporting Mississippi Summer Project created by SNCC. 28. 60, 91, 114 James Farmer Former leader of F.O.R. also supporting the Mississippi Summer Project created by SNCC. 29. 61, 141 Harold Cox Federal Judge of Mississippi who was appointed in 1961, calling negro applicants “a bunch of niggers.” acting like “a bunch of chimpanzees (61).” 30. 64 Governor Paul Johnson (MS) Doubled the number of state patrolmen on duty after the announcement of the Mississippi Summer Project. 31. 64 Mayor Allen Thompson (of Jackson Mississippi) Doubled the size of his police force by deputizing dozens of white men. Had an armored personnel carrier that would transport 12 men- known as “Thompson’s tank.” 32. (68-69), 70-72, 76, 97, 105 Mickey Schwerner (114) Hard worker from Brooklyn who had gone with his wife, Rita, to work as CORE field secretaries in Neshoba County. Local Klansman called him “the Jew boy with the beard.” (Wife) Rita Schwerner (70,72, 114) Andy Goodman Newcomer. 21 year-old student from Queens College majoring in anthropology. James Chaney (100) The youngest of the 3 volunteers CORE field secretary and native Mississippian. Plasterer by trade and black (which might have drawn the attention of Deputy Sheriff Price). 33. 72 Herbert Lee Shot and Killed (Mentioned in Book Two). 34. 73 Louis Allen Killed 65 35. 82 J. Edgar Hoover Part of the FBI and no friend of SNCC. Was quoted in the New York Times saying that SNCC was exploited by communities to “generate racial tensions.” Kept many SNCC members under surveillance with detailed files on them which was illegal and unconstitutional. 36. 82 Marion Talvin 26 year-old man who was shot twice in the head by gunfire while following car driven by two white men who had just fired into a negro cafe on Valley Street (MS). Released from University Hospital with a bullet still in his scalp. 37. 87,146, 212 James Hare Alabama Circuit Judge who created an injunction forbidding gatherings of more than three people in the city of Selma 38. 93 Shirley Maclaine Movie star who came to visit SNCC in Atlanta and came to one of their parties. Danced with Lewis for almost an hour. 39. 97-98, 106,114 Joe Rauh An attorney for the MFDP, who spoke at a convention and outlined the strategies MFDP had for the upcoming Atlantic City Convention. Believed in fundamental human rights. 40. 99 Ella Baker Keynote Address at the Jackson Convention. Instrumental in the creation of SNCC and the movement itself. 41. 100 Dave Dennis Co-director of COFO, delivered eulogy at James Chaney’s funeral (one of the three COFO volunteers found dead). 42. 102 Nelson Rockefeller Governor of New York who spoke at the Republican National Convention and tried to sway the party of Lincoln to stand up to the growing influence of conservative extremists. 43. 103, 104,119 Barry Goldwater A senator from Arizona who had voted against the Civil Rights Act and nominated by the republican party for president. 44. 104 Senator Hubert Humphrey Senator of Minnesota and potential running mate of Johnson. 66 45. 105, 114,145-146, Dr. Martin Luther 148-149, 151, 154, King 158, 166-169, 181, 183-184, 193, 208- Coretta King (229) 209, 212, 215, 217, 222, 227, 229, 237238, 245 Dr. King, Lewis, and others came along to the Atlantic City to support the delegates of the MFDP. 46. 107, 119 Senator James O. Eastland Senator Stennis 47. 108 Reverend Jeff Sunny “Carried” Fannie Lou Hamer to the rural area where she had worked as the timekeeper and sharecropper for 18 years. 48. 109 Mr. and Mrs. Robert Tucker Plantation owners that Fannie Lou Hamer worked at. 16 bullets fired into their home to stop Hamer from registering and voting 49. 119 Bayard Rustin Mentioned in Book Two 50. 120, 122 Senator Hubert Humphrey Senator Humphrey talks to MFDP members to try and force a compromise between them and the credential committee. 51. 122 Victoria Gray Unita Blackwell E.W. Steptoe James Travis Annie Devine Some of the 68 MFDP Delegates 53. 129, 233 Harry Belafonte Singer and longtime SNCC supporter who invited a delegation from SNCC to accompany him on a three-week trip to Africa to speak to young people and share ideas about what they were doing in the American South. 54. 129 Bob and Donna Moses Bill Hansen Prathia Hall Matthew Jones Ruby Robinson Jim Forman Julian Bond Don Harris (132134) List of people who went with Lewis and Belafonte on trip to Africa (specifically Dakar, Senegal). 67 55. 133-137, 167-169, 178-179 Malcolm X Seen by Lewis and friend Don Harris for the last time in Nairobi, Kenya. Was assassinated on Lewis’ birthday by a group of armed gunmen in New York City. 56. 140 Mary King Casey Hayden Two women SNCC members who submitted a paper called “the position of women in the movement” to fellow SNCC members addressing the inequalities within the movement amongst men and women. 57. 140 Stokely Carmichael SNCC member who made the comment, “What is the position of women in SNCC? The position of women in SNCC is prone (140)!” (Mentioned in Book Two) 58. 145 Mayor Joe Smitherman New major and refrigerator salesman. Considered a moderate segregationist, hoping to attract northern business investment to the area. 59. 146 Wilson Baker Appointed as Selma’s Chief of Police in order to stop public confrontations with protestors and negative media. Baker narrowly lost race for sheriff to Jim Clark because of his less violent attitudes towards dealing with protestors 60. 154, 193-194, 199, 229 Hosea Williams A young man from the SCLC who led the march with Lewis to the voting registration office. 61. 156, 160 Margaret Moore Sheyann Webb Moore was a local third-grade teacher and her student was Sheyann Webb. Both were arrested alongside at least sixty others for participating in the march to register and vote. 62. 160, 162 Reverend F.D. Reese President of the Dallas County Voter League. Reese was a school teacher and actively organized his colleagues’ participation. 63. 162, 193, 229 Andrew Young 64. 163 Bernard Lafayette (20) C.T. Vivian (173174) Both former SNCC members working for SCLC during the movement in Selma for voting rights. 68 65. 164-165 Annie Lee Cooper Lost her job in 1963 for participating in the first Freedom Day in Selma. During march on January 25, 1965 she was one of 250 people picketing outside of the courthouse. She hit an officer after he shoved another civilian and was held down by several officers and beaten in the face with a bat. Photos of her battered face appeared in the newspaper across the country. Years later, she would be elected to the Selma City Council 66. 166 Robert Woodruff Coca-Cola Chairman, arguably the most powerful person in the city, made it clear that Atlanta would properly honor the newest Nobel Laureate, Martin Luther King Jr. 67. 174 James Orange A SCLC worker who was arrested. C.T. Vivian spoke at a rally protesting his release. 68. 174-178, 180-182 Jimmie Lee Jackson A 26-year old army veteran shot by police after participating in protest for a SCLC worker arrested. It took 30 min. before local police took Jackson to the county infirmary after he had been shot. 69. 179 Ossie Davis Actor and activist who delivered Malcolm X’s funeral 70. 208, 229, 235 Ralph Abernathy One of the men who met Lewis when he was a teen and wanted to sue the University of Troy. Juanita Abernathy (229) 71. 208 Stanley Kramer Director of movie called “Judgement at Nuremberg.” Movie was interrupted with a special bulletin on ABC Sunday March 7, 1965. Frank Reynolds News anchor to tell viewers about the “Bloody Sunday” march. 72. 210 John Doar Man from the Justice Department who came by to take a statement from Lewis. 73. 212 Willie Ricks A SNCC organizer from Tennessee. 69 74. 212, 216 Judge Frank Johnson Federal District Judge who had issued the ruling whether or not the march on Selma could continue; ruled in favor of SCLC. Same judge who had issued an injunction to help Freedom Riders get out of Montgomery during the Freedom Ride. 75. 218-219 James Reeb Orloff Miller Clark Olsen Three unitarian ministers who had come to Selma to participate in the March on Selma. The three were walking back home on their way home from dinner and ended up near a notorious Klansmen hangout. Out of the three, James Reeb took the worst beating and didn’t look like he would survive. Later the next day, news came that he had died. 76. 222 Dr. Jackson The town dentist who offered his home up to Dr. King and John Lewis after they returned to Selma. They watched President Lyndon B. Johnson’s speech there. 77. 229 A. Philip Randolph One of the civil rights activists who came to the Selma to Montgomery March. 78. 229 Dick Gregory One of the civil rights activists who came to the Selma to Montgomery March. 79. 229 Ralph Bunche One of the civil rights activists who came to the Selma to Montgomery March. 80. 229 Rabbi Abraham Heschel One of the civil rights activists who came to the Selma to Montgomery March. 81. 233 Nina Simone Tony Bennett Sammy Davis Jr. Billy Eckstine Leonard Bernstein Joan Baez Peter, Paul, and Mary Performers and entertainers who were invited to perform at the Selma to Montgomery March, organized by Harry Belafonte. 82. 236-237 Rosa Parks Considered the “First Lady of the Movement” on December 1st, 1955 she refused to get up and give her seat to a white man on the bus. 70 83. 239 Viola Liuzzo A 39 year-old mother from Detroit who had come to Alabama after Bloody Sunday. After the rally at the capitol she and Leroy Moton began shuttling volunteers back to Selma. On their way back to Montgomery to pick up another round of volunteers, they were followed and the pursuers fired a single shot into her head, killing her. 84. 239 Leroy Moton 19-year old activist from Dallas county who was with Viola Liuzzo before she was shot and killed. 85. 242 Abraham Lincoln 86. 245 Ted Kennedy Calls John Lewis on January 20, 2009 and leaves a voicemail for him 87. 246 Andrew (Aydin) John Lewis talks to him about the comic book idea. In total: 34 +87= 121 121 people featured Similar to Book Two, Book Three has many people mentioned. For the names repeated, more context is given as well as the events they participated in. Overall, the list of individuals is larger here. 71 Appendix C This will include figures and images I did not include within the thesis itself. Footnote 56: Pages 228-231 72 73 Footnote 57: page 244-245 74 Bibliography Aydin, Andrew. “Cover Story: The Comic Book That Changed the World,” August 1, 2013. https://creativeloafing.com/content-185638-Cover-Story:-The-comic-book-that-changed-theworld. Aydin, Andrew, John Lewis, and Nate Powell. Civil rights history illustrated in new book. Interview by Rachel Maddow. The Rachel Maddow Show MSNBC, November 3, 2013. http://www.msnbc.com/rachel-maddow-show/watch/civil-rights-history-illustrated-in-newbook-62229571856?v=railb&. “Golgotha,” February 8, 2019. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/golgotha. Hassler, Alfred, and Benton Resnik. Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story. Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1957 Johnson, Davi. “Martin Luther King Jr.’s 1963 Birmingham Campaign as Image Event” 10 (2007). Lewis, John. Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. 2015th ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1998. Lewis, John, and Andrew Aydin. March: Book One. March Trilogy 1. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2013. ———. March: Book Three. March Trilogy 3. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2016. ———. March: Book Two. March Trilogy 2. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2015. Lewis, John, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell. Five questions for John Lewis, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell. Interview by Elissa Gershowitz. Article, August 8, 2016. https://www.hbook.com/2016/08/authors-illustrators/interviews/five-questions-for-johnlewis-andrew-aydin-and-nate-powell/. “Lou Dobbs Tonight.” Democrats Divided; Racist or Dissent; President Obama’s Czars; Border Violence, September 16, 2009. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0909/16/ldt.01.html. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. HarperCollins Publishers, 1993. Obama, “Remarks Commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Selma to Montgomery Marches for Voting Rights in Selma, Alabama.” Sacco, Joe, and Edward W. Said. Palestine. Seattle, WA: Fantagraphics Books, 2001. “Top Shelf Productions.” March / Top Shelf Productions. Accessed April 05, 2019. http://www.topshelfcomix.com/march. Watson, Martha Solomon. “The Issue Is Justice: Martin Luther King Jr.’s Response to the Birmingham Clergy.” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 7, no. 1 (2004): 1–22. Wilson, Kirt H. “Dreams of Union, Days of Conflict: Communicating Social Justice and Civil Rights Memory in the Age of Barack Obama.” National Communication Association, 2016, 13. 75