Chapter 12 Motivation and Performance Test Bank

Chapter 12 Motivation and Performance 41. _____ is central to management because it explains what drives or will drive people to achieve organizational goals. A. Determinis m B. Motivati on C. Ethnocentris m D. Structuralis m E. Positivis m Motivation may be defined as psychological forces that determine the direction of a person’s behavior in an organization, a person’s level of effort, and a person’s level of persistence in the face of obstacles. Motivation is central to management because it explains why people behave the way they do in organizations. 42. Fletcher met all the goals his manager set him, despite being faced with several obstacles. He won the Employee of the Year award for his diligence. Fletcher is: A. high on defeatism. B. low on achievement. C. low on motivation. D. low on effort. E. high on persistence. Persistence refers to whether, when faced with roadblocks and obstacles, people keep trying or give up. 43. Which of the following is true of Michael, a manager of stellar performance, who is driven by intrinsic motivation? A. The source of his motivation lies with the bonus paycheck he receives with each accomplishment. B. The source of his motivation lies with performing his role well and achieving organizational goals. C. He is motivated by the societal recognition and fame his achievements bring him. D. The source of his motivation lies with the censure that failure would bring him. E. He is motivated by the promotion his performance will necessitate. Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior that is performed for its own sake; the source of motivation is actually performing the behavior, and motivation comes from doing the work itself. Many managers are intrinsically motivated; they derive a sense of accomplishment and achievement from helping the organization achieve its goals and gain competitive advantages. 44. The source of _____ motivation lies with actually performing the behavior, and motivation comes from doing the work itself. A. extrins ic B. ethnocent ric C. xenocentr ic D. intrins ic E. operation al Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior that is performed for its own sake; the source of motivation is actually performing the behavior, and motivation comes from doing the work itself. 45. The source of _____ motivation lies with the acquisition of material or social rewards. A. extrins ic B. operation al C. intrins ic D. ethnocent ric E. experienti al Extrinsically motivated behavior is behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment; the source of motivation is the consequences of the behavior, not the behavior itself. 46. Which of the following is true of extrinsic motivation? A. The source of motivation is the consequences of the behavior, not the behavior itself. B. The source of motivation lies with executing the tasks with maximum efficiency and efficacy. C. The motivation is fueled by a person's need for achievement and selfactualization. D. The motivation is fueled by a person's desire to ensure the welfare of other people. E. The source of motivation lies with the sense of satisfaction that performing well brings. Extrinsically motivated behavior is behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment; the source of motivation is the consequences of the behavior, not the behavior itself. 47. Which of the following managers is driven by intrinsic motivation? A. Manuela, who works hard because of the sense of satisfaction that doing so gives her B. Derek, who works hard because of the incentives he receives each quarter C. Jolie, who works hard because she knows that by doing so, she will be promoted D. Luca, who works hard because of the recognition his achievements bring him E. Diane, who works hard because she knows that if she doesn't do so, she will be fired Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior that is performed for its own sake; the source of motivation is actually performing the behavior, and motivation comes from doing the work itself. Many managers are intrinsically motivated; they derive a sense of accomplishment and achievement from helping the organization achieve its goals and gain competitive advantages. 48. Which of the following managers is extrinsically motivated? A. Manuela, who works hard because of the sense of satisfaction that doing so gives her B. Patrick, who works hard because his job is interesting and enjoyable C. Kate, who works hard because her job gives her an opportunity to fulfill her potential D. Marco, who works hard because he wants to see his organization achieve its goals E. Jolie, who works hard because of the promotion she knows that doing so will bring her Extrinsically motivated behavior is behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment; the source of motivation is the consequences of the behavior, not the behavior itself. 49. Which of the following is true of prosocially motivated behavior? A. It is behavior that is performed to avoid censure or punishment. B. It is behavior that is performed for social recognition and respect. C. The source of motivation lies with the desire to conform to the norms of society. D. The source of motivation lies with the fear of punishment. E. It is behavior that seeks to improve the well-being of other people. Outcomes, such as improving the lives or well-being of other people and doing good by helping others, result in prosocially motivated behavior. 50. Which of the following managers displays prosocially motivated behavior? A. Derek, who works hard because of the incentives he receives each quarter B. Jolie, who works hard because she knows that by doing so, she will be promoted C. Luca, who works hard because of the recognition his achievements bring him D. Diane, who works hard because she knows that if she doesn't do so, she will be fired E. Brett, who works hard because he knows that what he does improves the welfare of many people Outcomes, such as improving the lives or well-being of other people and doing good by helping others, result in prosocially motivated behavior. 51. According to the expectancy theory, motivation is high when people: A. believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and ultimately, to the attainment of the desired goals. B. perceive that they can satisfy their need for affiliation and need for achievement with minimum effort. C. perceive that their own outcome–input ratio is less than that of referents. D. are set specific and challenging goals which help them focus their inputs in the right direction. E. learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences. Expectancy theory posits that motivation is high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes. 52. Which of the following is true of the expectancy theory formulated by Victor H. Vroom? A. It states that people are motivated to put effort into their work only if they think that their effort will pay off in high performance. B. It states that once a need has been satisfied, it ceases to be a source of motivation. C. It states that people are most motivated when they perceive that their own outcome-input ratio is less than that of referents. D. It drew attention to the important distinction between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. E. It suggests that to stimulate high motivation and performance, goals must be specific and difficult. Expectancy is a person's perception about the extent to which effort (an input) results in a certain level of performance. A person’s level of expectancy determines whether he or she believes that a high level of effort results in a high level of performance. 53. According to the expectancy theory, in what way can a manager boost the expectancy levels and motivation of employees? A. By setting them tasks for which they are overqualified B. By expressing confidence in their competence and capability C. By not putting them through intensive, routine training programs D. By lowering their levels of autonomy and responsibility as they gain experience E. By giving them advice frequently and monitoring their performance constantly Managers can boost subordinates’ expectancy levels and motivation by expressing confidence in them, by providing training so they have the expertise needed for high performance, and by increasing their levels of autonomy and responsibility as they gain experience so they have the freedom to do what it takes to perform at a high level. 54. According to the expectancy theory, _____ is a person’s perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level results in the attainment of outcome. A. instrumental ity B. determinis m C. positivis m D. valenc e E. ethnocentri sm Instrumentality, the second major concept in expectancy theory, is a person's perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level results in the attainment of outcomes. 55. Sandy announces at the morning staff meeting that any employee who increases sales by 15% will receive a 15% commission. According to the expectancy theory, Sandy is promoting _____. A. positivis m B. instrumental ity C. autono my D. equit y E. selfactualization Instrumentality, the second major concept in expectancy theory, is a person's perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level results in the attainment of outcomes. Managers promote high levels of instrumentality when they link performance to desired outcomes. 56. According to the expectancy theory, which of the following is true of instrumentality? A. Managers promote high levels of instrumentality when they link performance to desired outcomes. B. Managers promote instrumentality by ensuring that rewards are distributed to employees on the basis of their rank. C. Managers create low levels instrumentality when the distribution of outcomes available in an organization are performance-based. D. Managers create low levels of instrumentality when they link effort to performance. E. Managers promote low levels of instrumentality when they communicate to employees that high performance will lead to a pay raise in the future. Instrumentality, the second major concept in expectancy theory, is a person’s perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level results in the attainment of outcomes. According to expectancy theory, employees are motivated to perform at a high level only if they think high performance will lead to (or is instrumental for attaining) outcomes such as pay, job security, interesting job assignments, bonuses, or a feeling of accomplishment. 57. According to the expectancy theory, the term _____ refers to how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person. A. instrumental ity B. selfactualization C. valenc e D. equit y E. autono my The term valence refers to how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person. According to the expectancy theory, to motivate organizational members, managers need to determine which outcomes have high valence for them—are highly desired—and make sure that those outcomes are provided when members perform at a high level. 58. A manager provides outcomes to his subordinates for good performance in the form of rewards that they value. According to the expectancy theory, the manager is working on: A. valenc e. B. instrumentali ty. C. determinis m. D. selfactualization. E. positivis m. According to the expectancy theory, the term valence refers to how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person. 59. Which of the following is true of valence, according to the expectancy theory? A. High motivation results from low valence and low instrumentality. B. Valence refers to how instrumental an employee is to the organization. C. High levels of valency and instrumentality result in low expectancy. D. Outcomes considered to have high valence are identical across all employees. E. Providing employees with highly valent outcomes can reduce turnover. According to the expectancy theory, the term valence refers to how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person. Providing employees with highly valent outcomes not only can contribute to high levels of motivation but also has the potential to reduce to turnover. 60. _____ proposes that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and selfactualization needs. A. Victor H. Vroom's expectancy theory B. B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning theory C. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory D. Frederick Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory E. David McClelland's theory of needs Maslow proposed that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and selfactualization needs. He suggested that these needs constitute a hierarchy of needs, with the most basic or compelling needs—physiological and safety needs— at the bottom. 61. Which of the following forms the base of Maslow's hierarchy of needs? A. Esteem needs B. Belongingness needs C. Physiological needs D. Social nee ds E. Self-actualization needs According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the most basic or compelling needs are physiological needs. They are the basic needs for things such as food, water, and shelter that must be met in order for a person to survive. 62. Which of the following forms the pinnacle of Maslow's hierarchy of needs? A. Safety needs B. Belongingness needs C. Physiological needs D. Social nee ds E. Self-actualization needs Psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. According to Maslow's hierarchy, selfactualization—the need to realize one’s full potential as a human being—is a person's highest level need. 63. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which of the following needs does a company satisfy when it organizes a picnic or holiday party for its employees? A. Physiological needs B. Safety needs C. Self-awareness needs D. Belongingness needs E. Self-actualization needs Psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Belongingness can be satisfied by promoting good interpersonal relations and organizing social functions such as company picnics and holiday parties. 64. Which of the following is true according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs? A. The highest-level needs must be met before trying to satisfy the lowerlevel needs. B. Once a need is satisfied, it ceases to be a source of motivation. C. The five basic needs can be satisfied in any order. D. A person can be motivated by needs at more than one level at the same time. E. If unable to satisfy needs at a certain level, people will focus more intently on satisfying the needs at the next highest level. Maslow argued that lowest-level needs must be met before a person strives to satisfy needs higher up in the hierarchy. According to his hierarchy of needs, once a need is satisfied, it ceases to operate as a source of motivation. 65. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, by providing adequate medical benefits and safe working conditions, managers satisfy their employees' _____. A. need for selfactualization B. need for safety C. need for affiliation D. need for recognition E. need for power Psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that all people seek to satisfy five basic kinds of needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. By providing adequate medical benefits and safe working conditions, managers satisfy their employees' need for safety. 66. According Maslow's hierarchy of needs, as countries become wealthier and have higher standards of living, _____ needs are likely to be the prime motivators of behavior. A. physiologic al B. safet y C. selfactualization D. operation al E. experienti al As countries become wealthier and have higher standards of living, needs related to personal growth and accomplishment (such as esteem and self-actualization) become important motivators of behavior. 67. According Maslow's hierarchy of needs, by giving his/her employees the opportunity to use their skills and abilities to the fullest extent possible, a manager satisfies their _____. A. physiological needs B. safety needs C. self-actualization needs D. operational needs E. terminal needs According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, self-actualization needs are the needs to realize one’s full potential as a human being. By giving his/her employees the opportunity to use their skills and abilities to the fullest extent possible, a manager satisfies their self-actualization needs. 68. _____ collapsed the five categories of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy into three universal categories—existence, relatedness, and growth. A. David McClelland's three-needs theory B. Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory C. Herzberg's hygiene-motivator theory D. B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning E. Victor H. Vroom's expectancy theory Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory collapsed the five categories of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy into three universal categories—existence, relatedness, and growth. Unlike Maslow, he believed that a person can be motivated by needs at more than one level at the same time. 69. Which of the following is true of Alderfer's ERG theory? A. It states that when people experience need frustration, they focus upon a lower-level need. B. It states that a person can be motivated by only one need from any given level at a time. C. It states that needs which have already been satisfied are the strongest motivators. D. It states that the need for self-actualization is more important than the need for affiliation. E. It states that need for personal-growth is the lowestlevel need. Alderfer agreed with Maslow that as lower-level needs become satisfied, a person seeks to satisfy higher-level needs. He suggested that when people experience need frustration or are unable to satisfy needs at a certain level, they will focus more intently on satisfying the needs at the next lowest level in the hierarchy. 70. In what way do the theories of Maslow and Alderfer resemble each other? A. Both theories agree that self-actualization form the base of the needshierarchy. B. Both theories agree that a person can only be motivated by one need at a time. C. Both theories agree that as lower-level needs become satisfied, people seek to satisfy higher-level needs. D. Both theories agree that when people experience need frustration, they focus upon satisfying higher-level needs. E. Both theories agree that physiological needs form the pinnacle of the needs-hierarchy. Alderfer agreed with Maslow that as lower-level needs become satisfied, a person seeks to satisfy higher-level needs. Unlike Maslow, however, Alderfer believed that a person can be motivated by needs at more than one level at the same time. 71. In what way do the theories of Maslow and Alderfer differ? A. Unlike Alderfer, Maslow believed that self-actualization forms the base of the needs-hierarchy. B. Unlike Maslow, Alderfer believed that a person can be motivated by needs from multiple levels at a time. C. Unlike Maslow, Alderfer believed that as lower-level needs become satisfied, people seek to satisfy higher-level needs. D. Unlike Alderfer, Maslow believed that when people experience need frustration, they focus upon satisfying higher-level needs. E. Unlike Maslow, Alderfer believed that physiological needs form the pinnacle of the needs-hierarchy. Alderfer agreed with Maslow that as lower-level needs become satisfied, a person seeks to satisfy higher-level needs. Unlike Maslow, however, Alderfer believed that a person can be motivated by needs at more than one level at the same time. 72. According to Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, _____ needs are related to the nature of the work itself and how challenging it is. A. motivat or B. expectan cy C. instrumen tal D. hygien e E. termin al According to Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory, people have two sets of needs or requirements: motivator needs and hygiene needs. Motivator needs are related to the nature of the work itself and how challenging it is. 73. According to Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, _____ needs are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed. A. motivat or B. expectan cy C. instrumen tal D. hygien e E. termin al According to Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory, people have two sets of needs or requirements: motivator needs and hygiene needs. Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed. 74. According to Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, which of the following outcomes helps to satisfy motivator needs? A. Job security B. Good relationships with coworkers C. Good pay D. A sense of accomplishment E. Effective supervision Outcomes such as interesting work, autonomy, responsibility, being able to grow and develop on the job, and a sense of accomplishment and achievement help to satisfy motivator needs. 75. According to Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory, which of the following outcomes satisfy hygiene needs? A. Job security B. Responsibili ty C. Autono my D. A sense of accomplishment E. Interesting work Hygiene needs are satisfied by outcomes such as pleasant and comfortable working conditions, pay, job security, good relationships with coworkers, and effective supervision. 76. _____ drew attention to the important distinction between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs B. Alderfer's ERG theory C. Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory D. McClelland's theory of needs E. Equity theory Herzberg helped to focus researchers' and managers' attention on the important distinction between intrinsic motivation (related to motivator needs) and extrinsic motivation (related to hygiene needs). 77. According to McClelland, the need for _____ is the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. A. affiliati on B. belongingne ss C. achieveme nt D. selfawareness E. relatedne ss According to David McClelland, the need for achievement is the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. 78. According to McClelland, the need for _____ is the extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others. A. powe r B. affiliati on C. belongingne ss D. selfawareness E. equit y According to McClelland, the need for power is the extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others. 79. According to McClelland, the need for affiliation is the extent to which an individual: A. desires to perform challenging tasks well. B. wants to meet personal standards for excellence. C. is concerned about maintaining good interpersonal relations. D. desires to control other people. E. wishes to receive performance feedback. According to McClelland, the need for affiliation is the extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other. 80. Michelle has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. However, she does not wish do to so at the expense of maintaining good interpersonal relationships with her employees. According to McClelland's three-needs theory, Michelle has a: A. high need for affiliation and high need for achievement. B. low need for affiliation and low need for power. C. low need for achievement and low need for affiliation. D. high need for power and low need for affiliation E. low need for achievement and high need for power According to McClelland's three needs theory, the need for achievement is the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. The need for affiliation is the extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other. 81. Harry has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence, even at the expense of maintaining good interpersonal relationships with his employees. According to McClelland's three-needs theory, Harry has a: A. high need for affiliation and high need for achievement. B. low need for affiliation and high need for achievement. C. high need for affiliation and low need for power. D. high need for power and high need for affiliation E. low need for achievement and low need for power According to McClelland's three needs theory, the need for achievement is the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. The need for affiliation is the extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other. 82. Carrow is a manager who believes that maintaining control over his employees is more important than maintaining cordial relationships with them. According to McClelland's three-needs theory, Carrow has a: A. high need for power and low need for affiliation. B. high need for power and high need for affiliation. C. low need for power and low need for achievement. D. low need for achievement and high need for affiliation E. low need for power and low need for affiliation According to McClelland, the need for affiliation is the extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other. The need for power is the extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others. 83. _____ is a theory of motivation that concentrates on people’s perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to, or in proportion to, their work inputs. A. Equity theory B. Expectancy theory C. Goal-setting theory D. ERG theory E. Three-needs theory Equity theory is a theory of motivation that concentrates on people’s perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to, or in proportion to, their work inputs. Equity exists when a person perceives his or her own outcome–input ratio to be equal to a referent’s outcome–input ratio. 84. _____ exists when a person's own outcome-input ratio is perceived to be less than that of a referent. A. Absolute equity B. Instrumental equity C. Terminal equity D. Underpayment inequity E. Overpayment inequity Equity exists when a person perceives his or her own outcome–input ratio to be equal to a referent’s outcome–input ratio. Underpayment inequity exists when a person's own outcome-input ratio is perceived to be less than that of a referent. 85. Tracy, an employee at Nationwide Cellular, perceives that her outcome-input ratio is higher than that of her coworker Julia. This is an example of: A. overpayment inequity. B. underpayment inequity. C. absolute equity. D. instrumental equity. E. terminal equity. Equity exists when a person perceives his or her own outcome–input ratio to be equal to a referent’s outcome–input ratio. Overpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcome-input ratio is greater than that of a referent. 86. Julia perceives that she is working harder than a number of her coworkers and being paid less when compared to them. Julia is likely to be motivated to: A. improve her work attendance. B. increase her working hours. C. raise her work inputs. D. ask for more work. E. decline a promotion. When people experience underpayment inequity, they may be motivated to lower their inputs by reducing their working hours, putting forth less effort on the job, or being absent; or they may be motivated to increase their outcomes by asking for a raise or a promotion. 87. _____ considers how managers can ensure that organizational members focus their inputs in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organizational targets. A. Goal-setting theory B. ERG theory C. Three-needs the ory D. Operant conditioning theory E. Motivator-hygiene theory Goal-setting theory focuses on motivating workers to contribute their inputs to their jobs and organizations; in this way it is similar to expectancy theory and equity theory. It considers how managers can ensure that organizational members focus their inputs in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organizational targets. 88. The goal-setting theory: A. states that to stimulate high motivation and performance, goals must be generic. B. suggests that underpayment inequity motivates employees to achieve organizational goals. C. considers how managers can align the input of employees with organizational goals. D. examines the different types of rewards and punishments that can be used to reinforce goal-oriented behavior. E. suggests that people are most motivated to achieve organizational goals when they have low levels of job satisfaction. The goal-setting theory considers how managers can ensure that organizational members focus their inputs in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organizational goals. 89. According to _____ employees will be motivated to perform at a high level and attain their work goals to the extent that high performance and goal attainment allow them to obtain outcomes they desire. A. Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory B. McClelland's three-needs theory C. Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory D. Victor H. Vroom's expectancy theory E. B.F. Skinner's operant condition theory According to operant conditioning theory, developed by psychologist B. F. Skinner, people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences. 90. When _____ reinforcement is used, people are motivated to perform behaviors because they want to stop receiving or avoid undesired outcomes. A. positiv e B. absolut e C. intrins ic D. negativ e E. extrins ic When negative reinforcement is used, people are motivated to perform behaviors because they want to stop receiving or avoid undesired outcomes. 91. One way for managers to curtail the performance of dysfunctional behaviors is to eliminate whatever is reinforcing the behaviors. This process is called _____. A. extincti on B. punishme nt C. extracti on D. instrumental ity E. terminati on One way for managers to curtail the performance of dysfunctional behaviors is to eliminate whatever is reinforcing the behaviors. This process is called extinction. 92. _____ reinforcement gives people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors. A. Negativ e B. Extrinsi c C. Positiv e D. Intrinsi c E. Absolut e Positive reinforcement gives people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors. These desired outcomes, called positive reinforcers, include any outcomes that a person desires, such as pay, praise, or a promotion. 93. When John violated the company's code of ethics, he was suspended for eight weeks without pay. This is an example of _____. A. extincti on B. positive reinforcement C. negative reinforcement D. extracti on E. punishme nt Punishment involves administering an undesired or negative consequence to subordinates when they perform the dysfunctional behavior. 94. Why is organizational behavior modification criticized? A. It fails to give managers a technique to motivate the performance of organizationally functional behaviors. B. It has been unsuccessful when used to improve productivity, efficiency, attendance, and punctuality. C. It can rob people of their individuality, freedom of choice, and creativity if used ineptly. D. It does not work for behaviors that are specific, objective, and countable. E. It is highly ineffective in promoting organizational efficiency amongst employees. When managers systematically apply operant conditioning techniques to promote the performance of organizationally functional behaviors and discourage the performance of dysfunctional behaviors, they are engaging in organizational behavior modification. Critics of OB MOD suggest that it is overly controlling and robs workers of their dignity, individuality, freedom of choice, and even creativity. 95. Which of the following theories proposes that motivation results not only from direct experience of rewards and punishments but also from a person's thoughts and beliefs? A. Needs hierarchy theory B. ERG theory C. Equity theory D. Operant conditioning theory E. Social learning theory Social learning theory takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people’s thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people’s behavior. 96. _____ is a person’s belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully. A. Selfenhancement B. Selfefficacy C. Selfactualization D. Selfawarness E. Selfrespect Self-efficacy is a person’s belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully. It influences motivation both when managers provide reinforcement and when workers themselves provide it. 97. As a reward for completing his assignment two weeks ahead of schedule, Scott rewarded himself with a long vacation. The reward is a(n) _____. A. vicarious reinforcer B. negative reinforcer C. selfreinforcer D. relativereinforcer E. absolutereinforcer Self-reinforcers are any desired or attractive outcomes or rewards that people can give to themselves for good performance, such as a feeling of accomplishment, going to a movie, having dinner out, buying a new CD, or taking time out for a golf game. 98. Which of the following is true of employee stock options? A. They are used in lieu of payment for entry-level employees. B. They are used in lieu of payment for high-level managers. C. They are used to motivate employees to achieve organizational goals. D. They are used to attract customers from different market segments. E. They are used to decrease the value of stock options. Employee stock options are financial instruments that entitle the bearer to buy shares of an organization’s stock at a certain price during a certain period or under certain conditions. From a motivation standpoint, stock options are used not so much to reward past individual performance but, rather, to motivate employees to work in the future for the good of the company as a whole. 99. When an organization bases employees' pay on the number of units each employee produces, it is using a(n) _____. A. equity plan B. Scanlon plan C. piece-rate plan D. commission pay plan E. stock option plan Using piece-rate pay, an individual-based merit plan, managers base employees' pay on the number of units each employee produces. 100. The _____ plan motivates employees to propose and implement cost-cutting strategies because a percentage of the cost savings achieved during the specified time is distributed to the employees. A. commissi on B. equit y C. piecerate D. stockoption E. Scanlo n The Scanlon plan focuses on reducing expenses or cutting costs; members of an organization are motivated to come up with and implement cost-cutting strategies because a percentage of the cost savings achieved during a specified time is distributed to the employees.