Computer Organization & Architecture

Computer Organization & Architecture Lecture #19 Input/Output The computer system’s I/O architecture is its interface to the outside world. This architecture is designed to provide a systematic means of controlling interaction with the outside world and to provide the operating system with the information it needs to manage I/O activity effectively. There are three principal I/O techniques: programmed I/O, in which I/O occurs under he direct and continuous control of the program requesting the I/O operation; interrupt-driven I/O, in which a program issues an I/O command and then continues to execute, until it is interrupted by the I/O hardware to signal the end of the I/O operations; and direct memory access (DMA), in which a specialized I/O processor takes over control of an I/O operation to move a large block of data. Two important examples of external I/O interfaces are FireWire and Infiniband. Peripherals and the System Bus • There are a wide variety of peripherals each with varying methods of operation o Impractical to for the processor to accommodate all • Data transfer rates are often slower than the processor and/or memory o Impractical to use the high-speed system bus to communicate directly • Data transfer rates may be faster than that of the processor and/or memory o This mismatch may lead to inefficiencies if improperly managed • Peripheral often use different data formats and word lengths Purpose of I/O Modules • Interface to the processor and memory via the system bus or control switch • Interface to one or more peripheral devices External Devices External device categories • Human readable: communicate with the computer user – CRT • Machine readable: communicate with equipment – disk drive or tape drive • Communication: communicate with remote devices – may be human readable or machine readable The External Device – I/O Module • Control signals: determine the function that will be performed • Data: set of bits to be sent of received • Status signals: indicate the state of the device • Control logic: controls the device’s operations • Transducer: converts data from electrical to other forms of energy • Buffer: temporarily holds data being transferred Keyboard/Monitor • • • • • Most common means of computer/user interaction Keyboard provides input that is transmitted to the computer Monitor displays data provided by the computer The character is the basic unit of exchange Each character is associated with a 7 or 8 bit code Disk Drive • Contains electronics for exchanging data, control, and status signals with an I/O module • Contains electronics for controlling the disk read/write mechanism • Fixed-head disk – transducer converts between magnetic patterns on the disk surface and bits in the buffer • Moving-head disk – must move the disk arm rapidly across the surface I/O Modules Module Function • • • • • Control and timing Processor communication Device communication Data buffering Error detection I/O control steps • Processor checks I/O module for external device status • I/O module returns status • If device ready, processor gives I/O module command to request data transfer • I/O module gets a unit of data from device • Data transferred from the I/O module to the processor Processor communication • Command decoding: I/O module accepts commands from the processor sent as signals on the control bus • Data: data exchanged between the processor and I/O module over the data bus • Status reporting: common status signals BUSY and READY are used because peripherals are slow • Address recognition: I/O module must recognize a unique address for each peripheral that it controls I/O module communication • Device communication: commands, status information, and data • Data buffering: data comes from main memory in rapid burst and must be buffered by the I/O module and then sent to the device at the device’s rate • Error detection: responsible for reporting errors to the processor Typical I/O Device Data Rates I/O Module Structure Block Diagram of an I/O Module • • • • • • • Module connects to the computer through a set of signal lines – system bus Data transferred to and from the module are buffered with data registers Status provided through status registers – may also act as control registers Module logic interacts with processor via a set of control signal lines Processor uses control signal lines to issue commands to the I/O module Module must recognize and generate addresses for devices it controls Module contains logic for device interfaces to the devices it controls • I/O module functions allow the processor to view devices is a simple-minded way • I/O module may hide device details from the processor so the processor only functions in terms of simple read and write operations – timing, formats, etc… • I/O module may leave much of the work of controlling a device visible to the processor – rewind a tape, etc… I/O channel or I/O processor • I/O module that takes on most of the detailed processing burden • Used on mainframe computers I/O controller of device controller • Primitive I/O module that requires detailed control • Used on microcomputers Programmed I/O Overview of Programmed I/O • Processor executes an I/O instruction by issuing command to appropriate I/O module • I/O module performs the requested action and then sets the appropriate bits in the I/O status register – I/O module takes not further action to alert the processor – it does not interrupt the processor • The processor periodically checks the status of the I/O module until it determines that the operation is complete I/O Commands The processor issues an address, specifying I/O module and device, and an I/O command. The commands are: • Control: activate a peripheral and tell it what to do • Test: test various status conditions associated with an I/O module and its peripherals • Read: causes the I/O module to obtain an item of data from the peripheral and place it into an internal register • Write: causes the I/O module to take a unit of data from the data bus and transmit it to the peripheral Three Techniques for Input of a Block of Data I/O Instructions Processor views I/O operations in a similar manner as memory operations Each device is given a unique identifier or address Processor issues commands containing device address – I/O module must check address lines to see if the command is for itself I/O mapping • Memory-mapped I/O o Single address space for both memory and I/O devices ƒ disadvantage – uses up valuable memory address space o I/O module registers treated as memory addresses o Same machine instructions used to access both memory and I/O devices ƒ advantage – allows for more efficient programming o Single read line and single write lines needed o Commonly used • Isolated I/O o Separate address space for both memory and I/O devices o Separate memory and I/O select lines needed o Small number of I/O instructions o Commonly used Interrupt-Driven I/O • Overcomes the processor having to wait long periods of time for I/O modules • The processor does not have to repeatedly check the I/O module status I/O module view point • I/O module receives a READ command form the processor • I/O module reads data from desired peripheral into data register • I/O module interrupts the processor • I/O module waits until data is requested by the processor • I/O module places data on the data bus when requested Processor view point • The processor issues a READ command • The processor performs some other useful work • The processor checks for interrupts at the end of the instruction cycle • The processor saves the current context when interrupted by the I/O module • The processor read the data from the I/O module and stores it in memory • The processor the restores the saved context and resumes execution Design Issues How does the processor determine which device issued the interrupt How are multiple interrupts dealt with Device identification • Multiple interrupt lines – each line may have multiple I/O modules • Software poll – poll each I/O module o Separate command line – TESTI/O o Processor read status register of I/O module o Time consuming • Daisy chain o Hardware poll o Common interrupt request line o Processor sends interrupt acknowledge o Requesting I/O module places a word of data on the data lines – “vector” that uniquely identifies the I/O module – vectored interrupt • Bus arbitration o I/O module first gains control of the bus o I/O module sends interrupt request o The processor acknowledges the interrupt request o I/O module places its vector of the data lines Multiple interrupts • The techniques above not only identify the requesting I/O module but provide methods of assigning priorities • Multiple lines – processor picks line with highest priority • Software polling – polling order determines priority • Daisy chain – daisy chain order of the modules determines priority • Bus arbitration – arbitration scheme determines priority Intel 82C59A Interrupt Controller Intel 80386 provides • Single Interrupt Request line – INTR • Single Interrupt Acknowledge line – INTA • Connects to an external interrupt arbiter, 82C59A, to handle multiple devices and priority structures • 8 external devices can be connected to the 82C59A – can be cascaded to 64 82C59A operation – only manages interrupts • Accepts interrupt requests • Determines interrupt priority • Signals the processor using INTR • Processor acknowledges using INTA • Places vector information of data bus • Processor process interrupt and communicates directly with I/O module 82C59A interrupt modes Fully nested – priority form 0 (IR0) to 7 (IR7) Rotating – several devices same priority - most recently device lowest priority Special mask – processor can inhibit interrupts from selected devices Intel 82C55A Programmable Peripheral Interface • Single chip, general purpose I/O module • Designed for use with the Intel 80386 • Can control a variety of simple peripheral devices A, B, C function as 8 bit I/O ports (C can be divided into two 4 bit I/O ports) Left side of diagram show the interface to the 80386 bus Interface to a Keyboard/Display Terminal Direct Memory Access Drawback of Programmed and Interrupt-Driven I/O • I/O transfer rate limited to speed that processor can test and service devices • Processor tied up managing I/O transfers DMA Function • DMA module on system bus used to mimic the processor. • DMA module only uses system bus when processor does not need it. • DMA module may temporarily force processor to suspend operations – cycle stealing. DMA Operation • The processor issues a command to DMA module o Read or write o I/O device address using data lines o Starting memory address using data lines – stored in address register o Number of words to be transferred using data lines – stored in data register • The processor then continues with other work • DMA module transfers the entire block of data – one word at a time – directly to or from memory without going through the processor • DMA module sends an interrupt to the processor when complete DMA and Interrupt Breakpoints during Instruction Cycle • • • • The processor is suspended just before it needs to use the bus. The DMA module transfers one word and returns control to the processor. Since this is not an interrupt the processor does not have to save context. The processor executes more slowly, but this is still far more efficient that either programmed or interrupt-driven I/O. DMA Configurations • Single bus – detached DMA module • Each transfer uses bus twice – I/O to DMA, DMA to memory • Processor suspended twice • • • • Single bus – integrated DMA module Module may support more than one device Each transfer uses bus once – DMA to memory Processor suspended once • • • • Separate I/O bus Bus supports all DMA enabled devices Each transfer uses bus once – DMA to memory Processor suspended once I/O Channels and Processors The Evolution of the I/O Function 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Processor directly controls peripheral device Addition of a controller or I/O module – programmed I/O Same as 2 – interrupts added I/O module direct access to memory using DMA I/O module enhanced to become processor like – I/O channel I/O module has local memory of its own – computer like – I/O processor • More and more the I/O function is performed without processor involvement. • The processor is increasingly relieved of I/O related tasks – improved performance. Characteristics of I/O Channels • Extension of the DMA concept • Ability to execute I/O instructions – special-purpose processor on I/O channel – complete control over I/O operations • Processor does not execute I/O instructions itself – processor initiates I/O transfer by instructing the I/O channel to execute a program in memory • Program specifies o Device or devices o Area or areas of memory o Priority o Error condition actions Two type of I/O channels • Selector channel o Controls multiple high-speed devices o Dedicated to the transfer of data with one of the devices o Each device handled by a controller, or I/O module o I/O channel controls these I/O controllers • Multiplexor channel o Can handle multiple devices at the same time o Byte multiplexor – used for low-speed devices o Block multiplexor – interleaves blocks of data from several devices. The External Interface: FireWire and Infiniband Type of Interfaces Parallel interface – multiple bits transferred simultaneously Serial interface – bits transferred one at a time I/O module dialog for a write operation 1. I/O module sends control signal – requesting permission to send data 2. Peripheral acknowledges the request 3. I/O module transfer data 4. Peripheral acknowledges receipt of data FireWire Serial Bus – IEEE 1394 • • • • Very high speed serial bus Low cost Easy to implement Used with digital cameras, VCRs, and televisions FireWire Configurations • • • • • • • Daisy chain 63 devices on a single port – 64 if you count the interface itself 1022 FireWire busses can be interconnected using bridges Hot plugging Automatic configuration No terminations Can be tree structured rather than strictly daisy chained FireWire three layer stack: Physical layer • Defines the transmission media that are permissible and the electrical and signaling characteristics of each • 25 to 400 Mbps • Converts binary data to electrical signals • Provides arbitration services o Based on tree structure o Root acts as arbiter o First come first served o Natural priority controls simultaneous requests – nearest root o Fair arbitration o Urgent arbitration Link layer • Describes the transmission of data in the packets • Asynchronous o Variable amount of data and several bytes of transaction data transferred as a packet o Uses an explicit address o Acknowledgement returned • Isochronous o Variable amount of data in sequence of fixed sized packets at regular intervals o Uses simplified addressing o No acknowledgement Transaction layer • Defines a request-response protocol that hides the lower-layer detail of FireWire from applications FireWire Protocol Stack FireWire Subactions InfiniBand • • • • • • • • • • Recent I/O specification aimed at high-end server market First version released early 2001 Standard for data flow between processors and intelligent I/O devices Intended to replace PCI bus in servers Greater capacity, increased expandability, enhanced flexibility Connect servers, remote storage, network devices to central fabric of switches and links Greater server density Independent nodes added as required I/O distance from server up to o 17 meters using copper o 300 meters using multimode optical fiber o 10 kilometers using single-mode optical fiber Transmission rates up to 30 Gbps InfiniBand Switch Fabric InfiniBand Operations • • • • • 16 logical channels (virtual lanes) per physical link One lane for fabric management – all other lanes for data transport Data sent as a stream of packets Virtual lane temporarily dedicated to the transfer from one end node to another Switch maps traffic from incoming lane to outgoing lane InfiniBand Communication Protocol Stack