Criminology Chapter 5 Reading Questions

1. Trait theory looks at whether or not there’s an abnormal biological or psychological aspect that might be causing criminal behavior. Biological make up features genetics and psychological functioning. Psychologists or sociologists borrow from psychopsychology  and psychological theories in general but personality traits are stressed. The view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. Subdivided into two major categories: Those that stress biological make up, and those that stress psychological functioning. 2. It’s important to understand what personality traits are because personality reflects the totality of beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and ways of interacting with the social world. A person has traits that are both reflective of and affect their beliefs, attitudes, and  behaviors, on how they interact with the world around them. Personality reflects the totality of beliefs, attitudes, behavior, and ways of interacting with the social world. Personality consists of an array of traits (discrete human characteristics). This varies across people, and is stable throughout life course. 3. Sociobiology is the view that human behavior is motivated by inborn biological urges to survive and preserve the species. It also assumes that while social behavior is genetically transmitted, it adapts to and is shaped by existing environmental conditions. This is because behavioral traits are shaped by both inherited traits and the environment. Biological and genetic conditions affect how social behaviors are learned and perceived. Behavior is then basically determined by the need to ensure survival of offspring and replenishment of the gene pool. Biology, environment, and learning are mutually interdependent factors. The view that human behavior is motivated by inborn biological urges to survive and preserve the species. Assumes that while social behavior is genetically transmitted, it adapts to and is shaped by existing environmental conditions. Behavioral traits are shaped by both inherited traits and the environment. Biological and genetic conditions affect how social behaviors are learned and perceived. Behavior is determined by the need to ensure survival of offspring and replenishment of the gene pool. Biology, environment, and learning are mutually interdependent factors. 4. Early trait theories picked one trait and said you were born with this trait and you are going to be a criminal. This was a very dangerous view so this theory fell quickly out of favor. Contemporary trait theories focus more on environmental and social factors that affect behavior. It is now obvious that people are biological beings so they have different biological traits which affect how they behave. Basically these theories tend to focus on explaining crime based on the actual person themselves in their relationship with the outside environment. Compared to the original trait theorists (Lombroso, etc), contemporary trait theories don’t suggest that one biological/psychology trait explains all criminality. Explanations very based upon the person. 5. The individual vulnerability model says that something happens either during pregnancy or at birth, or shortly after, which can affect social functioning; deficit is going to happen regardless of the environment. An individual person’s traits are more important than any environmental factors that are around them. The differential susceptibility model is more accepted and popular. This talks about how people possess traits, physical or mental, that make them vulnerable to situations that are happening in the environment. So someone who has criminogenic traits but is never exposed to a negative criminogenic environment, might never actually commit any antisocial behavior. It is not enough to have just this genetic disposition towards criminal behavior, you also need to pair it with a criminogenic environment. Individual vulnerability model: some people develop physical or mental conditions at birth, or shortly thereafter, that affect their social functioning regardless of their environment. Differential susceptibility model: some people possess physical or mental traits that make them vulnerable to adverse environmental influences. 6. Abnormal levels of androgens can produce aggressive behavior. If one’s sexy hormones are out of whack, this will lead to different personalities like sensation seeking, impulsivity, dominance, and reduced verbal skill. A greater exposure to testosterone during fetal development can increase a person’s risk of long term aggressive behavior. Premenstrual syndrome causes females to be more likely to be aggressive and commit suicide just before or during menstruation. A significant number of incarcerated females commit crimes during their premenstrual phase. Abnormal levels of androgens can produce aggressive behavior; related to sensation-seeking, impulsivity, dominance, and reduced verbal skills. Testosterone: prenatal exposure to unnaturally high levels of testosterone permanently alter behavior. Age-Crime curve and gender differences. 7. High levels of lead have been shown to interfere with brain development, especially in regions that are responsible for higher levels of thinking. When exposed during pregnancy or shortly after birth, it can affect IQ, the ability to pay attention, and academic achievement. Delinquent children have much higher levels of lead in their systems than the general population. People who are more likely to be exposed to lead are people living in lower income areas since the lead was never fully washed away. Low levels of lead in the blood have been shown to affect IQ, ability to pay attention, and academic achievement. Delinquent children have much higher bone lead levels than the general population. Linked to mental illnesses such as schizophrenia. Trends in crime associated with environmental levels of lead exposure. About 3% of all US children under the age of 6 are exposed to high levels of lead; more heavily concentrated in minority populations. 8. Neurophysiological physiology is the study of brain activity. Researchers use brain imaging techniques such as an MRI, FMIR, and PET scans, to show brain activity while performing certain actions. Using this type of study, we can find out what areas of the brain might be directly linked to antisocial behavior. It has been found that violent criminals and substance abusers have an impairment in their prefrontal lobes. This is the area of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functioning. The study of brain activity: studies show that violent criminals and substance abusers have impairment in the prefrontal lobes (higher cognitive functioning), thalamus (relay station, sleep), medial temporal lobe (long-term memory). Cognitive misfiring and suppressed neural activity. 9. Executive function is a set of mental skills that include working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control. Higher level cognitive skills are used to control and coordinate other cognitive abilities and behaviors. Mental processes that enable us to plan are focus attention, remembering, and juggling multiple tasks. We use these skills every day to learn, work, and manage daily life. Trouble with executive function can make it hard to focus, follow directions, and handle emotions, among other things. Reduction in executive functioning is associated with a range of developmental, neuropsychiatric, and medical disorders; ADHD, CD, schizophrenia, major depression, diabetes, and alcoholism. Higher level cognitive skills used to control and coordinate your other cognitive abilities and behaviors. Mental processes that enable us to plan, focus attention, remember, and juggle multiple tasks. Reduction in EF is associated with a range of developmental, neuropsychiatric, and medical disorders. ADHD, CD, schizophrenia, major depression, diabetes, and alcoholism. 10. Abnormal brain structure can increase the risk of antisocial behavior because it can result in an individual being less sensitive to environmental inputs and more prone to criminal behavior choices. These types of people seek more intense and varied stimulation to get the same level of thrill that other people would. They are also willing to tolerate more adverse consequences. The amygdala is an area of the brain that processes information regarding threats and fear, while the frontal lobe is the brain region linked to decision making and impulse control. Aggressive behavior may be linked to abnormal activity in the amygdala AND a lessening of activity in the frontal lobe. Amygdala: an area of the brain that processes information regarding threats and fear. Frontal lobe: brain region linked to decision making and impulse control. Age-crime curve and gender differences. Reactive vs proactive aggression. Successful vs unsuccessful psychopaths. 11. ADHD is a personality disorder which was diagnosed in the DSM handbook. It’s characterized by acting without thinking. Some people are easily distracted, and they have an inability to sit still. It is typically diagnosed in children but can be diagnosed in adults too. ADHD is associated with poor school performance, having to repeat a grade, bullying others, stubbornness, and a lack of response to discipline. School failure leads to substance abuse, depression, and the beginning of antisocial behavior. It can have an indirect and a direct effect on antisocial behavior. Frustration can be a direct link between ADHD. Aggression and hyperactivity is indirect. Inappropriate lack of attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity; associated with poor school performance, grade repetition, bullying, stubbornness, and lack of response to discipline. Various causes: brain anatomy and function, genes, head injury, prenatal exposure to alcohol or nicotine, environmental toxins. Linked to the onset of a criminal career. Highly comorbid with CD. Associated with higher likelihood of using illicit drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, being physically aggressive, and engaging in sex offenses in adolesccene. More likely to be arrested, to be charged with a felony, and have multiple arrests as adults. 12. Brain chemistry plays its part so the brain can communicate with itself through neurotransmision. Neurotransmitters activate different brain functions, so if these aren’t working, it can lead to abnormal behavior. This has been linked to aggressive and antisocial behavior. Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, COMT, and GABA are the main neurotransmitters linked to that behavior. If the MAOA gene is not working, there’s going to be too many neurotransmitters in between neurons, making it harder for the brain to communicate. Low functioning MAOA is associated with abnormal levels of dopamine and serotonin in the brain. This can increase the chances of violent and aggressive behavior. It has also been linked to becoming a gang member, using a weapon in a fight, and psychopathic personalities. Neurotransmitters: chemical compounds that influence or activate brain function. Abnormal levels of various neurotransmitters have been linked to aggressive ASB: dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, COMT, GABA; MAOA- warrior gene, possible explanation for gender gap. Variance in neurotransmission can be caused by genetics, structure/function abnormalities in the brain, exposure to toxins prenatally or in early childhood. 13. In young people, low resting HRs may be a sign of antisocial behavior, and can even be found in criminals and psychopaths. Raine et al. found that low heart rate may produce a need for stimulation that is associated with aggressive behavior patterns. Low heart rate is also a strong predictor of chronic aggression and violence, especially when combined with an aggressive personality and adverse environment. 14. A direct effect of antisocial behavior can be inherited directly from the parent to the child. If the parent has a genetic predisposition of crime, they’re likely to pass that on to their kid. Genetic abnormality is directly linked to a variety of antisocial behavior. There are several indirect effects; genes code for different parts of the brain, different neurotransmitters, and brain chemistry, all make up a person’s personality. Parental deviance is when children of criminals are more likely to be criminals themselves. The Cambridge Youth Study is one of the largest studies done, showing that if a person’s father was arrested, they were more likely to show social behavior themselves. Adoption studies are used in biosocial criminology. They show that adoptees who had a criminal biological parent and a criminal adoptive parent, have the highest rate of being convicted of a crime. Twin studies are done in biosocial criminology to look at the genetic effects of crime. If inherited traits cause criminal behavior, then we expect that twins would be very similar in their criminal behavior. 15. Crime is partially inherited. Heritability estimates from twin studies, showing that variance in antisocial behavior is about fifty percent genetic factors, and fifty percent environmental factors. Biosocial criminologists recognize that environments play a significant role in genetic expression and brain functioning. 16. The evolutionary theory focuses on the fact that the ultimate goal of life is reproductive success. Over the course of human history, the most aggressive violent people have gained reproductive advantages that ensure survival of their genetics and have created a population of aggressive young males. The competition for scarce resources has influenced and shaped the human species. Aggression is basically crucial to human survival, and therefore those traits have been passed down to future generations. 17. The psychodynamic perspective focuses on the psychological aspects of crime, including the associations among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior. Freudian psychology states that humans carry with us “residue” of significant emotional attachments and turmoil during childhood, which then guides our future interpersonal relationships. The Id shows the more primitive part of the brain, such brain functioning. The Id overlaps significantly with the more primitive parts of the brain and not the prefrontal cortex. The ego is the part of the personality that’s developed in early childhood and helps control people’s actions within the boundaries of social convention. The superego is a part of the personality representing the conscious formed in early life by internalization of the standards of parents and other models of behavior. This also links learning and modeling different behavior. Freudian psychology: humans carry with us “residue” of significant emotional attachments and turmoil during childhood, which then guides our future interpersonal relationships. Human personality has 3 “structures:” Id is the primitive part of people’s mental makeup, present at birth, that represents unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other life-sustaining necessities. The id seeks instant gratification without concern for the rights of others. Personality characteristics of chronic offenders. Ego is the part of the personality developed in early childhood that helps control the id and keep people’s actions within the boundaries of social convention. Superego is the part of the personality representing the conscience, formed in early life by internalization of the standards of parents and other models of behavior. Links crime to a manifestation of feelings of oppression and the inability to develop the proper psychological defenses and rationales to keep these feelings under control. Criminality enables troubled people to survive by producing positive psychic results 18. According to the psychodynamic perspective, the Id best characterizes a chronic offender because it shows the more primitive part of the brain and the brain's functions. 19. Attachment theory is the ability to form an emotional bond to another person, having important psychological implications that follow people across the lifespan. Failure to develop proper attachment during infancy and early childhood leads to a number of psychological disorders that can cause criminal behavior. This can lead to impulsivity, difficulty concentrating, and difficulty in school. Meta analysis is a lack of attachment that predicts involvement in a broad spectrum of criminal behavior. There is an indirect relationship between attachment and crime. Poor attachments lead to personality traits that are going to make restraining behavior harder and increase risk for criminal activity. The ability to form an emotional bond to another person has important psychological implications that follow people across the life span. Failure to develop proper attachment during infancy and early childhood leads to a number of psychological disorders; Impulsivity, difficulty concentrating, difficulty in school; Meta analysis- lack of attachment predicts involvement in a broad spectrum of criminal activity 20. Social learning theory is when children model the behavior of their parents and older peers. If they have parents or older peers that are performing criminal behavior then they might learn this criminal and aggressive behavior from them. People also model the behavior of the majority of people around them. If one is living in a poor neighborhood with a high violent crime rate, they are more likely or more at risk for violent behavior. – Social Learning Theory; people learn to be aggressive through life experience. Behavior modeling: family interactions, environmental experiences, and mass media. Factors that may contribute to violent behavior: an event that heightens arousal, aggressive skills, expected outcomes and consistency of behavior with values. 21. Information processing theory is how people process, store, encode, retrieve and manipulate information to make decisions. People with inadequate cognitive processing perceive the world as stacked against them and they believe they have little control over their negative events in their life. They will find it difficult to understand or sympathize with other people’s feelings and emotions, which then leads them to blame the victims for their problems. Mental scripts are an internal dialogue that we associated with one instance that we draw upon when deciding how to act in a new situation or a new instance that is similar to something we have experienced before. Information processing theory: How people process, store, encode, retrieve and manipulate information to make decisions; influences perceptions of the world, influences views of where one fits into the world, environmental and biological factors can alter information processing abilities, chronic offenders may continuously use information incorrectly when making decisions. Mental Scripts: internal Dialogue which has the power to shape our realities, scripts change over life-course, and narrative identities that promote desistance from crime. 22. The PEN model says there are three major elements of personality, psychoticism, extroversion, and eroticism. These three have been linked to criminal behavior. In modern times, there are five major aspects of personality. Although the three original ones significantly affect criminal behavior. There is a pattern of certain personalities being more likely to be linked to criminal behavior. It is important to figure out why some people have certain personality traits and how those personality traits are developed, as well as how they can be altered to prevent or stop criminal behavior from happening. Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism (PEN): extroverts: energetic, enthusiastic, action-oriented, chatty, glib, and self-confident; introverts: quiet, low-key, deliberate, detached from others; extreme extroverts or introverts at risk for antisocial behavior. 23. Nature theory says that intelligence is largely determined genetically and low intelligence is linked to criminality. The nurture theory says that intelligence is not inherited but is largely a product of the environment. Basically saying that everyone is born a blank slate and it is up to the environment to fill that slate in. The nurture theory also states that low IQ is not the cause of crime, but it is a byproduct of the negative environments that can cause criminal behavior. The IQ crime link suggests that people with lower intelligence commit crime, but this is very taboo. It basically says that you are genetically inferior to others if IQ were to be based on genetics. It also shows that minorities tend to have lower IQs than white people. Nature Theory: Intelligence is largely determined genetically and low-intelligence is linked to criminality. Nurture Theory: Intelligence is not inherited but is largely a product of the environment; low IQ does not cause crime but may result from the same environmental factors. IQ-Crime Link Controversy: Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang suggested a link exists between intelligence and crime; Low IQ in youths cause poor performance in school, and school failure is highly related to delinquency and adult criminality. 24. There is a complex link between mental illness and crime. Incarcerated offenders are significantly more likely to suffer from a severe mental illness compared to the general population. Certain types of mental illness are more closely linked to certain types of offenses. Although only a small minority of seriously mental ill individuals commit violent crimes. Complex link between mental illness and crime: Incarcerated offenders are significantly more likely to suffer from a severe mental illness compared to gen pop. Certain types of mental illness are more closely linked to certain types of offenses. Only a small minority of seriously mentally ill individuals commit violent crimes; More of crime risk when other factors are present; Drug/Alcohol Addiction; Stressors like Family Dysfunction and Unemployment; Lack of access to appropriate treatment; Link between mental illness and crime may also be spurious; Risk of violent victimization; Police more likely to arrest mentally ill; Commonality in root cause: e.g., child abuse 25. Trait theories are used to create programs that address crime. Primary prevention programs occur early in life and try to stop criminal behavior from happening. Without knowing about different genetic predispositions and about different environments that enhance them, we wouldn’t be able to target certain populations. Secondary prevention involves intervention with juvenile offenders in the early stages of their offending histories to prevent further involvement in the juvenile justice system. Tertiary prevention focuses on the rehabilitation of hardcore, serious offenders. How are trait theories used to create programs that address crime? Primary Prevention Programs, Secondary Prevention Programs, and Treatment Programs. These programs incorporate various therapeutic techniques and rationales to address different behavioral issues: CBT, Multisystemic Therapy, and Medical and physiological components. 26. Cognitive behavior therapy is based on a cognitive theory of psychopathology. It is used by psychotherapists and other medical/rehab professionals. It addresses clients' cognition and related emotions and behaviors. It can also be used to help clients reframe the "way" they think about themselves and their impairments and subsequently change related behaviors. Most therapists will work with clients who have mental illness, emotional disorders, character disorders. A class of therapeutic interventions based on a common theory about the connection between our thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs—cognitions—and our behavior. Assumes that most people can become conscious of their own thoughts and behaviors and then make positive changes to them. They way we think about situations shapes our choices, behavior, and actions. Flawed or maladaptive thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs lead to inappropriate and even destructive behavior. Distorted thinking: immature or developmentally arrested thoughts, poor problem solving and decision making, an inability to consider the effects of one’s behavior, An egocentric viewpoint with a negative view or lack of trust in other people, A hampered ability to reason and accept blame for wrongdoing, A mistaken belief of entitlement, including an inability to delay gratification, confusing wants and needs, and ignoring the rights of other people, A tendency to act on impulse, including a lack of self-control and empathy, An inability to manage feelings of anger, the use of force and violence as a means to achieve goals, and CBT focuses on providing the means to correct flawed cognitive-behavior processes through individual or group therapy.