Lecture Note
Cinematography. Essential Concepts
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University:
California State University, Northridge -
Course:
CTVA 240 | Fundamentals of Video Production Academic year:
2018
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Views:
250
Pages:
31
Author:
Harrison Montoya
CINEMATOGRAPHY
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS • The filmmaker controls the cinematographic
qualities of the shot
– not only what is filmed
but also how it is filmed
• Cinematographic qualities involve three factors:
1. the photographic aspects of the shot
2. the framing of the shot
3. the duration of the shot In other words, cinematography is affected by
choices in:
1. Photographic aspects of the shot
2. Framing
3. Duration of the shot 1. Photographic image
• The study of the photographic image includes:
A. Range of tonalities
B. Speed of motion
C. Perspective 1.A: Tonalities of the photographic image
The range of tonalities include:
I.
Contrast – black & white; color
It can be controlled with lighting, filters, film
stock, laboratory processing, postproduction
II. Exposure – how much light passes through the
camera lens
Image too dark, underexposed; or too bright,
overexposed
Exposure can be controlled with filters 1.A. Tonality - cont
Tonality can be changed after filming:
Tinting – dipping developed film in dye
Dark areas remain black & gray;
light areas pick up color
Toning - dipping during developing of positive
print
Dark areas colored light area;
white/faintly colored 1.A. Tonality - cont
• Photochemically – based filmmaking can have the
tonality fixed. Done by color timer or grader in
the laboratory
• Digital grading used today. A scanner converts film
to digital files, creating a digital intermediate
(DI). DI is adjusted with software and scanned
back onto negative 1.B.: Speed of motion
• Depends on the relation between the rate at which the
film was shot & the rate of projection
• Both rates are calculated in frames per second
• In the silent era, films were shot at a variety of
speeds, usual ranging from 16 to 20 frames per
second, gradually getting a bit faster in the
mid-1920s
• Once sound was adopted in the late 1920s, it was
necessary to record both sound and image at a
uniform speed, so that they could be
synchronized
• The rate of shooting & projection for the sound
cinema was standardized at 24 frames per second 1.B.: Speed of motion - cont
Observe that if I there are fewer frames per second
than the projection rate, the screen action looks
speeded up
• Slow motion: more frames per second, the
projection action looks in slow motion
• Ramping: varying frame rate during shooting
• Time lapse: one frame per minute, or more time,
when projected, looks speeded up
• High speed: hundreds of frames per second 1.B.: Speed of motion - cont
• For depicted movement to look accurate, then, the
rate of shooting must correspond to the rate of
projection
• The jerkiness of the images in a silent film is usually
the result of projecting a film shot at 16 to 20
frames per second at 24 frames per second
• The filmmaker can control the rate of the film’s
movement through the camera 1.C.: Perspective
Perspective: set of spatial relations organized around a
point of view
It comprises:
A. Focal length - wide angle
middle lens
long lens or telephoto
B. Depth of field and focus 1.C.: Perspective
Perspective relations can be manipulated through
special effects:
• Superimposition
• Rear & back projection
• Matte work 2. Framing the image
Framing is a powerful cinematic technique
It comprises:
• Dimensions of the framing space
• Space – onscreen/offscreen
• Camera position
Angle – straight, high, low
Level – parallel to the horizon or canted
Height
Distance of framing
• Functions of framing
• Mobile framing 2. Framing
Frame dimensions & shape
The ratio of frame width to frame height is called
aspect ratio
The rough dimensions of the ratio were set quite
early in the history of cinema by Edison,
Dickson, Lumière & other inventors
The film frame was to be rectangular, its proportion
approximately three to two, yielding an
aspect ratio of 1.33: 1, or Academy ratio
Since the 1950s, a variety of widescreen ratios
have dominated 35mm filmmaking 2. Framing: Distance of framing
Framing supplies not only an angle & height and on a
level plane or at a cant but also with respect to
distance
It gives the viewer the sense of being far away or close
to the mise-en-scène of the shot
This aspect of framing is called camera distance
– the scale is the human body
Several types of shots, ranging from farthest to closest 2. Framing: Distance of framing
Types of shots according to camera distance:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Extreme long shot
Long shot
Medium long shot
Medium shot
Medium close-up
Close- up
Extreme close-up 2. Framing: Types of shots
• Extreme long shot – the human figure is barely
visible; framing for landscapes, bird’s –eye views
of cities & other vistas
• Long shot – figures are more prominent, but the
background still dominates
• Medium long shots – from about the knees up; very
common; they permit a good balance of figure &
surrounding
• Medium shot – frames the human body from the
waist up; gesture & expressions become more
visible 2. Framing: Types of shots - cont
• Medium close-up – frames the body from the chest
up
• Close-up – traditionally the shot showing just the
head, hands, feet, or small objects; it emphasizes
facial expression, the details of a gesture, or a
significant object
• Extreme close up – singles out a portion of the face
(eyes or lips), isolates a detail, & magnifies the
minute 2. Functions of framing
The context of the film will determine the function of
the framing, just as it determines the function of
mise-en-scène, photographic qualities & other
techniques
We must look for the functions the technique performs
in the particular context of the total film
Framing can be used for emphasis, subjectivity (pointof-view shot) & motif 2. Framing: Mobile frame
Mobile frame is specific to cinema
The frame moves with respect to the framed material
Mobile framing means that within the image, the
framing of the object changes
The mobile frame produces changes of camera height,
distance, angle, or level during the shot 2. Framing: Types of mobile framing
The camera usually rests on a support while filming;
this support is designed to move the camera
Each camera movement creates a specific effect onscreen
• The pan (short for ‘panorama’) rotates the camera on a
vertical axis. The camera does not displace itself,
it turns its ‘head’ right or left
• The tilt rotates the camera on a horizontal axis. The
camera does not change position, but its ‘head’
swivels up or down 2. Types of mobile framing - cont
• Tracking shot (or dolly) – the camera as a whole
does not change position; it travels in any
direction along the ground – forward, backward,
circularly, diagonally, or from side to side
• Crane shot – the camera moves above ground level;
it rises or descends,often thanks to a mechanical
arm which lifts and lowers it 2. Types of mobile framing - cont
Pan, tilts, tracking shots & crane shots are the most
common framing movements, but virtually any
kind of camera movement can be imagined:
somersaulting, rolling, and so on
Remember that in both the pan & the tilt, the body of
the camera does not change position; it simple
swivels left or right, up or down
Remember also that types of camera movements can
be combined 2. Mobile framing: Movement & machinery
Many camera movements are made with the camera
on a dolly
Before the 1970s, it was standard practice to mount
the dolly on rails for lengthy movements –
‘tracking’ shot
Today, a Steadicam is used – a camera mount, attached
to the operator’s body by means of a brace.
The operator can walk with the camera, guiding
the framing by minimal hand movements while
viewing the image on a video monitor. Another
operator adjusts focus by remote control 2. Mobile framing: Movement & machinery
Sometimes the filmmaker does not want smooth
camera movements, preferring a bumpy, jiggling
hand-held image. This is achieved through the
use of the camera. It became common in the late
1950s with the cinema verité documentary
Even though camera movement is the most common
way of making the frame mobile, the zoom lens
can also be used (the camera doesn’t move –
the lens creates the illusion that it is moving) 2. Functions of frame mobility
Consider how framing strategies function systematically
within films – how does mobile framing relate to
cinematic space & time? how are patterns
created?
The mobile frame need not be subordinate to the
movement of figures at all. It can move
independently of them, too. Often, the camera
moves away from the characters to reveal
something of significance to the narrative 3. Duration of the image: the long take
It is possible to manipulate screen duration within a single shot
A take:
Long take:
one run of the camera that records a single shot
unusually lengthy shot
When an entire scene is rendered in only one shot, the long take is
known by the French term ‘plan sequence', or sequence
shot
Most commonly, the filmmaker uses the long take selectively
Alternatively, the director may decide to build the entire film out
of long takes, e.g. Rope (Hitchcock, 1948), with only eight shots,
each running the full length of a reel of ilm in the camera 3. The long take & the mobile frame
The long take often replaces editing
It is frequently allied to the mobile frame: by using
panning, tracking, craning, or zooming, it
presents continually changing vantage points
that are comparable to the shifts of view supplied
by editing
A classic example of how the long take can constitute a
formal pattern is the opening sequence of
Welles’ Touch of Evil (1958) Summary
• The film shot is a very complex unit
• Mise-en-scène fills the image with material,
arranging setting, lighting, costume & figure
behavior within the formal context of the total
film
• Within that same formal context, the filmmaker also
controls the cinematographic qualities of the
shot – how the image is photographed &
framed, how long the image lasts on the screen
• Digital postproduction has reshaped every area of
technique: editing, cinematography, sound &
mise-en-scène Films suggested as examples
• Tonality – The Battle of Algiers (1967, Pontecorvo)
Saving Private Ryan (1998, Spielberg)
• Telephoto – Tootsie (1982, Pollack)
• Zoom – The Conversation (1974, Coppola)
• Slow motion – The Wild Bunch (1969, Peckinpah)
• Deep focus – Citizen Kane (1941)
• Split screen – Time Code (2000, Figgis) • Mobile camera - Saboteur (1942, Hitchcock)
Young and Innocent (1937, Hitchcock)
Notorious (1946, Hitchcock)
Grand Illusion (1937, Renoir)
• Hand-held camera – Primary (1960, Drew)
• Long take – Touch of Evil (1958, Welles)
Gravity (2013, Cuarón)
Stations of the Cross (2014, Brüggemann)
Birdman (2015, González Iñárritu)
• Steadicam & long take – Snake Eyes (1998, De Palma)
Cinematography. Essential Concepts
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