Derivative Security Notes

Chapter 1 - Introduction           Derivative securities Futures contracts Forward contracts Futures and forward markets Comparison of futures and forward contracts Options contracts Options markets Comparison of futures and options Types of traders Applications  Derivative securities Securities whose values are derived from the values of other underlying assets Futures and forward contracts Options Swaps Others  Futures contracts An agreement between two parties to either buy or sell an asset at a certain time in the future for a certain price For example, in March a trader buys a July futures contract on corn at 400 cents (or $4) per bushel If ST > $4 (gain) March: a trader buys a July: the trader must July futures contract on buy 5,000 bushels of If ST = $4 (no gain/loss) corn at 400 cents/bushel corn for $20,000 If ST < $4 (lose) Profit/loss diagram (Refer to Figure 2.3) Profit Profit 0 ST 0 K=$4 ST K=$4 Long position (buy futures) Short position (sell futures) 1 K = delivery price = $4/bushel and ST = the spot price at maturity (can be greater than, equal to, or less than $4/bushel) If ST is greater than K, the person with a long position gains (ST - K) and the person with a short position loses (K - ST) - zero sum game (someone’s gain is someone else’s loss) If ST is less than K, the person with a long position loses (ST - K) and the person with a short position gains (K - ST) - zero sum game If ST is equal to K, there is no gain or loss on both sides - zero sum game Corn: underlying asset - commodity (commodity futures contract) Buy a futures contract: long position - promise to buy 400 cents/bushel: futures price/delivery price 5,000 bushels: contract size - standardized July: delivery month Spot price: actual price in the market for immediate delivery More examples (1) Long futures positions: agree to buy or call for delivery On February 1, you buy a June gold futures contract at 1,100: you agree to buy (or call for delivery) 100 ounces of gold in June at 1,100 dollars per troy ounce Contract details 1,100 dollars per ounce - futures price of gold on February 1 for June delivery, also called delivery price (Note: the futures price of gold on February 2 for June delivery may be different) 100 ounces - contract size June - delivery month Underlying asset: gold - commodity (commodity futures contract) Position: long position Actual market price of gold - spot price which can be different from the futures price (2) Short futures positions: agree to sell or promise to deliver On February 1, you sell a June Yen futures contract at 1.1250: you agree to sell (or promise to deliver) 12,500,000 Yen in June at $1.1250 per 100 Yen ($1 for 88.8889 Yen) Contract details $1.1250 per 100 Yen - futures price (exchange rate), also called delivery price 12,500,000 Yen - contract size June - delivery month Underlying asset: foreign currency - financial asset (financial futures contract) Position: short position Actual market exchange rate - spot exchange rate which can be different from the futures exchange rate 2 Futures contracts can be written on different assets (underling assets): Commodities - commodity futures, for example, grains, livestock, meat, metals, and oil Financial assets - financial futures, for example, stock indices, bonds, currencies Technical details (covered in later chapters) Margin requirements Daily settlement procedures - marking to market Bid-offer spreads Clearinghouses Delivery   Forward contracts A forward contract is similar to a futures contract in that it is an agreement between two parties to either buy or sell an asset at a certain time in the future for a certain price. But forward contracts are less formal, traded only in OTC markets, and contract sizes are not standardized. Futures and forward markets (1) Exchange-traded markets Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT): futures contracts Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME): futures contracts Open-outcry system: traders physically meet on the floor of the exchange and use a complicated set of hand signals to trade Electronic trading: increasingly replacing the open-outcry system to match buyers and sellers (2) Over-the-counter (OTC) markets Telephone- and computer-linked network of dealers Flexibility - tailor your needs Credit risk - the risk that your contract will not be honored  Comparison of futures and forward contracts (Refer to Table 2.3) Exchange Standardized Marking to Delivery trading contract size market Yes or cash Forward No No No settlement Usually Futures Yes Yes Yes closed out 3 Delivery time One date Range of dates Default risk Some credit risk Virtually no risk  Options contracts Rights to buy or sell an asset by a certain date for a certain price American options vs. European options American options can be exercised at any time before the expiration date European options can only be exercised on the maturity date Keeping other things the same, which type of options should be worth more and why? Answer: American options because they can be exercised at any time before expiration Two types of options: call options vs. put options A call option gives the right to buy an asset for a certain price by a certain date For example, you buy an IBM June 110 call option for $3.00 Option type: call option - the right to buy The underlying asset - IBM stock Exercise (strike) price - $110 per share Expiration date - the third Friday in June Contract size: 100 shares Option premium (price of the option): $300.00 A put option gives the right to sell an asset for a certain price by a certain date For example, you buy a GE June 16 put option for $2.00 Option type: put option - the right to sell The underlying asset - GE stock Exercise (strike) price - $16 per share Expiration date - the third Friday in June Contract size: 100 shares Option premium: $200.00 Four types of positions: buy a call, sell (write) a call, buy a put, and sell (write) a put (1) (1) Buy a call (2) (2) Sell a call (3) (3) Buy a put Options can be written on different assets: Stocks - stock options Stock indices - index options Currencies - currency options Futures - futures options Others 4 (4) (4) Sell a put  Options markets Exchange traded markets (1) Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE): options (2) Over-the-counter (OTC) markets  Comparison of futures and options Rights (options) vs. obligations (futures) Initial outlay (buying options requires an initial outlay while buying futures doesn’t) Both need a margin account (futures are subject to marking to market daily) Both use leverage  Types of traders (1) Hedgers: use options and futures markets to reduce price uncertainty (risk) in the future For example, a farmer can sell corn futures contracts to lock in a price and an investor can buy a put option to protect a potential downward movement of a particular stock More details: a company can use forward contracts for hedging currency risk Import Co. purchased goods from a British supplier in June and needs to pay 10 million British pounds in September. A local financial institution offers forward contracts for British pounds. The quotes are shown below: Spot 1-month forward 3-month forward 6-month forward Bid 1.6382 1.6380 1.6378 1.6376 Offer 1.6386 1.6385 1.6384 1.6383 How should Import Co. hedge the exchange rate risk? Answer: Import Co. should buy 10 million British pounds in the three-month forward market to lock in the exchange rate of 1.6384 (or 16.384 million dollars for 10 million pounds for September delivery) When you sell pounds to the financial institution you get the bid price When you buy pounds from the financial institution you pay the offer price The difference between bid and offer is called bid-offer spread which is the profit for the institution 5 (2) Speculators: bet on price movement For example, you buy gold futures contracts because you bet that the price of gold will go up in the future, or you buy a put option on Intel if you bet that Intel stock price will drop More details: a trader uses options for speculation (leverage effect) A trader with $2,000 to invest bets that the price of ORCL will increase in the near future and has the following quotes: Current stock price: $20.00 ORCL June call option with exercise price of $22.50 sells for $1.00 Alternative 1: buy 100 shares of ORCL Alternative 2: buy 20 ORCL June call options with exercise price of $22.50 Possible outcomes: If ORCL stock price rises to $27 Alternative 1: profit of $700 = 100*(27 - 20) Alternative 2: profit of $7,000 = 20*100(27 - 22.5 - 1) If ORCL stock price falls to $17 Alternative 1: loss of $300 = 100*(17 - 20) Alternative 2: loss of $2,000 (the options are worthless) If ORCL stock price rises to $23.5 Alternative 1: profit of $350 = 100*(23.5 - 20) Alternative 2: break-even (23.5 - 22.5 - 1) (3) Arbitrageurs: look for risk-free profits by taking the advantage of mispricing in two or more markets simultaneously Conditions for arbitrage: Zero net cost No risk Positive profit Example: use stocks and exchange rates for arbitrage A stock is traded on both NYSE and London Stock Exchange. The following quotes are obtained at a particular time: Stock price at NYSE: $20/share Stock price at London Stock Exchange: 13 pounds/share Spot exchange rate: 1 pound = $1.60 6 Detailed arbitrage process: Borrow $2,000 to buy 100 shares at NYSE Sell the shares at London Stock Exchange for 1,300 pounds Covert the sale proceeds from pounds to dollars at the spot exchange rate to receive $2,080 = 1,300*1.60 Repay the loan of $2,000 Arbitrage profit: 2,080 – 2,000 = $80 (ignoring transaction costs) (4) Dangers: start from hedgers or arbitrageurs and consciously or unconsciously become speculators  Applications Market completeness - any and all identifiable payoffs can be obtained by trading the derivative securities available in the market (Financial Engineering) Risk management - reduce risk, hedging Trading efficiency - increase market efficiency Price discovery - futures price is the best expected spot price in the future Speculation - bet on prices  Assignments Quiz (required) Practice Questions: 1.11, 1.13, 1.14, and 1.20 7 Chapter 2 - Mechanics of Futures Markets         Specification of a futures contract Convergence of futures price to spot price Operation of margins Quotes and prices Delivery Types of orders Regulation Accounting and taxes  Specification of futures contracts Opening a futures position vs. closing a futures position Opening a futures position can be either a long position or a short position (i.e., the opening position can be either to buy or to sell a futures contract) Closing a futures position involves entering an opposite trade to the original one The underlying asset or commodity: must be clearly specified The contract size: standardized Corn and wheat: 5,000 bushels per contract Live cattle: 40,000 pounds per contract Cotton: 50,000 pounds per contract Gold: 100 troy ounces per contract DJIA: $10*index Mini DJIA: $5*index S&P 500: $250*index Mini S&P 500: $50*index Delivery month: set by the exchange Delivery place: specified by the exchange Daily price limits: usually specified by the exchange, it is the restriction on the day-today price change of an underlying commodity. For example, the price of corn can change by no more than 10 cents per bushel from one day to the next and the price of wheat can change by no more than 20 cents per bushel from the preceding closing price Position limits: the maximum number of contracts that a speculator may hold For example, less than 1,000 contracts total with no more than 300 contracts in any one delivery month for random-length lumber contract in CME Tick: the minimum price fluctuation, for example, ¼ cent per bushel for wheat 8  Convergence of futures price to spot price As the delivery period approaches, the futures price converges to the spot price of the underlying asset Why? Show that the arbitrage opportunity exists if it doesn’t happen If the futures price is above the spot price as the delivery period is reached (1) Short a futures contract (2) Buy the asset at the spot price (3) Make the delivery If the futures price is below the spot price as the delivery period is reached (1) Buy a futures contract (2) Short sell the asset and deposit the proceeds (3) Take the delivery and return the asset  Operation of margins Margin account: an account maintained by an investor with a brokerage firm in which borrowing is allowed Initial margin: minimum initial deposit Maintenance margin: the minimum actual margin that a brokerage firm will permit investors to keep their margin accounts Margin call: a demand on an investor by a brokerage firm to increase the equity in the margin account Variation margin: the extra fund needs to be deposited by an investor Marking to market: the procedure that the margin account is adjusted to reflect the gain or loss at the end of each trading day 9 Example: suppose an investor buys two gold futures contracts. The initial margin is $2,000 per contract (or $4,000 for two contracts) and the maintenance margin is $1,500 per contract (or $3,000 for two contracts). The contract is entered into on June 5 at $850 and closed out on June 18 at $840.50. (Gold is trading around $1,200 per ounce now) Futures price Daily gain Cumulative Margin Margin call (settlement) (loss) gain (loss) balance (variation margin) 850.00 4,000 June 5 848.00 (400) (400) 3,600 June 6 847.50 (100) (500) 3,500 June 9 848.50 200 (300) 3,700 June 10 846.00 (500) (800) 3,200 June 11 844.50 (300) (1,100) 2,900 Yes (1,100) June 12 845.00 100 (1,000) 4,100 June 13 846.50 300 (700) 4,400 June 16 842.50 (800) (1,500) 3,600 June 17 838.00 (900) (2,400) 2,700 Yes (1,300) June 18 840.50 500 (1,900) 4,500 Note: the investor earns interest on the balance in the margin account. The investor can also use other assets, such as T-bills to serve as collateral (at a discount) Day Clearinghouse: an intermediary to guarantee in futures transactions  Quotes and prices Opening price, highest and lowest prices, and settlement price Bid price vs. offer price Bid price: the price an institution is prepared to buy Offer price: the price an institution is prepared to sell Settlement price: the average of the prices immediately before the closing bell and marking to market is based on the settlement price Open interest: the total number of contracts outstanding at a particular time Open interest: an example Given the following trading activities, what is the open interest at the end of each day? Time t=0 t=1 t=2 t=3 Actions Open Interest Trading opens for gold contract 0 Trader A buys 2 and trader B sells 2 gold contracts 2 Trader A sells 1 and trader C buys 1 gold contract 2 Trader D sells 2 and trader C buys 2 gold contracts 4 10  Delivery Very few futures contracts lead to actual delivery and most of futures contracts are closed out prior to the delivery month If delivery takes place, the decision on when to deliver is made by the party with the short position Cash settlement: some financial futures, for example, stock index futures are cash settled (No actual delivery)  Types of orders Market order: the best price currently available in the market Limit order: specifies a price (limit price) and your order will be executed only at that price or a more favorable price to you More specifically, you will buy at or below a specified price (limit price) or you will sell at or above a specified price (limit price) For example, current price of gold = $1,100, you can specify to buy a futures contract on gold if the futures price  $1,080 or you can specify to sell a futures contract on gold if the futures price  $1,150 Stop (stop-loss) order: specifies a price (stop price) and your order will become a market order if the stop price is reached For example, current price of gold = $1,100, you can specify to sell a futures contract if the futures price  $1,060 or you can specify to buy a futures contract if the futures price  $1,150 The main difference between a limit order and a stop order: With a limit order you buy when the price drops and you sell when the price rises With a stop order you buy when the price rises and you sell when the price drops Stop-limit order: a combination of a stop order and a limit order For example, current price of gold = $1,100 A stop-limit order to sell at a stop price $1,050 with a limit price $1,020 A stop-limit order to buy at a stop price $1,120 with a limit price $1,150 Market-if-touched order: executed at the best available price after a specified price is reached For example, current price of gold = $1,100 A market-if-touched order to sell if price  $1,120 11 Day order: valid for the day Open order (good-till-canceled): in effect until the end of trading in a particular contract  Regulation Futures markets are mainly regulated by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC). Other agencies, for example, National Futures Association (NFA), Securities and Exchange Committee (SEC), the Federal Reserve Board, and U.S. Treasury Department also step in from time to time. The Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC): to approve new contracts, set up daily maximum price fluctuation, minimum price movements, and certain features of delivery process The National Futures Association (NFA): to prevent fraudulent and manipulative acts and practices Trading irregularities: corner the market - take a huge long futures position and also try to exercise some control of the underlying commodity Example: Hunt brothers’ price manipulation in the silver market in 1979-1980  Accounting and taxes Changes in the market value of a futures contract are recognized when they occur unless the contract is qualified as a hedge For speculators, all paper gains or losses on futures contracts are treated as though they were realized at the end of the tax year - marking to market at the end of the year 40% of any gains or losses are to be treated as short-term and 60% of any gains or losses are to be treated as long-term For hedgers, all paper gains or losses are realized when the contracts are closed out The 40% short-term and 60% long-term rule doesn’t apply for hedgers  Assignments Quiz (required) Practice Questions: 2.11, 2.15, 2.16, and 2.23 12 Chapter 3 - Hedging Strategies Using Futures       Hedging principles Arguments for and against hedging Basis risk Cross hedging Stock index futures Rolling hedging  Hedging principles Hedging: to reduce risk Complete hedging: to eliminate risk Short hedges: use short positions in futures contracts to reduce or eliminate risk For example, an oil producer can sell oil futures contracts to reduce oil price uncertainty in the future Long hedge: use long positions in futures contracts to reduce or eliminate risk For example, a brewer buys wheat futures contracts to reduce future price uncertainty in wheat  Arguments for and against hedging Hedging can reduce risk but it has a cost (1) Firms don’t need to hedge because shareholders can hedge by themselves (2) Hedging may cause profit margin to fluctuate (3) Hedging may offset potential gains  Basis risk Hedging usually can not be perfect for the following reasons: The asset whose price is to be hedged may not be exactly the same as the asset underlying the futures contract (e.g., stock index futures and your stock portfolio) The hedger may be uncertain as to the exact date when the asset will be bought or sold The hedge may require the futures contract to be closed out well before its expiration date 13 Basis Basis (b) = spot price (S) - futures price (F) Basis risk Let S1, F1, and b1 be the spot price, futures price, and basis at time t1 and S2, F2, and b2 be the spot price, futures price, and basis at time t2, then b1 = S1 - F1 at time t1 and b2 = S2 - F2 at time t2. Consider a hedger who knows that the asset will be sold at time t2 and takes a short position at time t1. The spot price at time t2 is S2 and the payoff on the futures position is (F1 - F2) at time t2. The effective price is S 2 + F1 - F2 = F1 + b2, where b2 refers to the basis risk Basis risk in a short hedge Suppose it is March 1 (t1). You expect to receive 50 million yen at the end of July (t2). The September futures price (exchange rate) is currently 0.8900 dollar for 100 yen. Hedging strategy: (1) Sell four September yen futures contracts on March 1 (Since the contract size is 12.5 million yen 4 contracts will cover 50 million yen) (2) Close out the contracts when yen arrives at the end of July Basis risk: arises from the uncertainty as to the difference between the spot price and September futures price of yen at the end of July (S2 - F2 = b2) The outcome: at the end of July, suppose the spot price was 0.9150 and the September futures price was 0.9180, then the basis b 2 = 0.9150 - 0.9180 = - 0.0030 Gain on futures contract F1 - F2 = 0.8900 - 0.9180 = -0.0280 Effective price F1 + b2 = 0.8900 - 0.0030 = 0.8870 or Effective price S 2 + F1 - F2 = 0.9150 - 0.0280 = 0.8870 Detailed illustration: Sell 4 Sept. yen futures contracts Receive 50 million yen, exchange yen to $ at S2, close Sept. contracts Delivery month March 1 (t1) End of July (t2) September (Know S1, F1, and b1) (Receive 50 million yen) (F1 = 0.8900, known in t1) (Don’t know S2, F2, and b2) (Know S2, F2, and b2) (F2 = 0.9180, known in t2) (Effective price = S 2 + F1 - F2) Choice of contract for hedging: (1) Same underlying asset (or closely related) (2) Delivery month (usually a later delivery month) 14  Cross hedging If the asset underlying the futures contract is the same as the asset whose price is being hedged, the hedge ratio usually is 1.0. For example, if a farmer expects to harvest 10,000 bushels of corn, the farmer should sell 2 corn futures contracts. Cross hedging: two different assets (but closely related) Minimum variance hedge ratio: the ratio of the size of the position taken in futures contract to the size of the exposure to minimize the variance of the hedged position Define S : change in spot price, S F : change in futures price, F  S : standard deviation of S  F : standard deviation of F  : correlation coefficient between S and F When the hedger is long the asset and short futures, the change in value of the hedged position is S  hF When the hedger is short the asset and long futures, the change in value of the hedged position is hF  S Taking variance of the hedged position, both positions yield v   S2  h 2 F2  2h S  F Taking the first order derivative of v with respect to h in order to minimize the risk Minimum variance hedge ratio, h* =  S , where  is the correlation coefficient F Note: h* is the estimated slope coefficient in a linear regression of F on S and  2 is 2 the R from the regression and it is called hedge effectiveness Optional number of contracts is given by: N* = h* NA/QF, where NA is the size of position being hedged, and QF is the size of futures contract For example, if an airline wants to purchase 2 million gallons of jet fuel and decides to use heating oil futures to hedge, and if h* is 0.78 and the contract size for heating oil is 42,000 gallons, then the airline should buy 37 contracts to hedge (futures contracts on jet fuel are not available in the market). 15  Stock index futures Stock indices: price weighted vs. value weighted Price weighted indices: for example, DJIA Value weighted indices: for example, S&P 500 For stock index futures, the optional number of contracts is given by: N* =  P/A, where P is the current value of the portfolio, A is the current value of the stocks underlying one futures contract, and  is the beta of the portfolio For example, if you want to hedge a stock portfolio using the S&P 500 futures contract, if P = $5,000,000,  = 1.5, S&P 500 index = 1,000, A = 250*1,000 = 250,000, then N* = 1.5*5,000,000/250,000 = 30 contracts (short) Changing beta of a portfolio from  to  * (  >  *) N* = (  -  *) P/A For example, if you want to reduce the portfolio beta to 0.75 N* = 15 contracts (short)   Rolling hedging Rolling the hedge forward multiple times (n times) Short futures contract 1 Close out future contract 1 and short futures contract 2 Close out futures contract 2 and short futures contract 3 Close out futures contract n Time 1 (t1) Time 2 (t2) Time 3 (t3) Time T (tn) Assignments Quiz (required) Practice Questions: 3.12, 3.16, and 3.18 16 ------ Chapter 4 - Interest Rates       Types of interest rates Measuring interest rates Zero rates Bond pricing Forward rates Term structure theories  Interest rates Treasury rates - risk-free rates T-bill rates vs. T-bond rates LIBOR (London Interbank Offer Rate): used between large international banks LIBID (London Interbank Bid Rate): used between large international banks LIBOR > LIBID Repo rate: an investment dealer sells its securities to another company and agrees to buy them back later at a slightly higher price - the percentage change in prices is the repo rate  Measuring interest rates Nominal rate vs. effective rate Effective rate = (1  R ) m  1 , where R is the annual nominal rate and m is the number of m compounding within a year If m goes to infinity, we have effective rate under continues compounding, eR - 1 In general, the FV of $A compounded continuously for n years at a nominal annual rate of R is FV = AeRn In the same way, the PV of $A discounted continuously at a nominal rate of R for n years is PV = Ae-Rn Relationship between continues compounding and compounding m times per year: e RC  (1  Rm m ) m , where Rc is a rate of interest with continues compounding and Rm is the equivalent rate with compounding m times per year, or RC  m * ln(1  Rm ) m For example, for a 10% annual rate with semiannual compounding, the equivalent rate with continuous compounding is Rc = 2*ln (1 + 0.1/2) = 9.758% 17  Zero rates Zero rates: n-year zero-coupon interest rate is the rate of interest earned on an investment that starts today and lasts for n years  Bond pricing When pricing a bond, you should use different zero rates to discount all expected future cash flows (coupon payments and face value) to the present. Determining Treasury zero rates using T-bond price quotes Bond principal ($) Time to maturity (years) Annual coupon ($) Bond price (S) 100 0.25 0 97.5 100 0.50 0 94.9 100 1.00 0 90.0 100 1.50 8 96.0 100 2.00 12 101.6 For a 3 month T-bond, the price is 97.5 for $100 face value. With quarterly compounding, the 3 month T-bond has a zero rate of 4*(2.5)/97.5 = 10.256%. Convert that rate to continuous compounding Rc = m*ln(1 + Rm/m) = 0.10127 = 10.127% (with m = 4 and Rm is 10.256%) Similarly, we can obtain the 6 month and 1 year T-bond zero rates of 10.469% and 10.536% for continuous compounding. To determine the 1.5 year zero-rate, we solve 4e-0.10469*0.5 + 4e-0.10536*1 + 104e-R*1.5 = 96 (semiannual coupon payments) R = 10.681% In a similar way, we can obtain the 2 year zero-rate of 10.808%  Forward rates Spot rate vs. forward rate An n-year spot rate is the interest rate on an investment that starts today and lasts for n years A forward rate is an interest rate that is implied by the current spot rates for periods of time in the future In general, RF = (R2T2 – R1T1) / (T2 – T1) For example, if T1 = 3, T2 = 4, R1 = 0.046 = 4.6%, and R2 = 0.05 = 5%, then RF = 6.2% 18  Term structure theories Term structure of interest rates and yield curves Term structure of interest rates: relationship between interest rates (yields) and time to maturity Yield curve: a graph showing the term structure of interest rates Expectation theory: long-tern interest rates should reflect expected futures short-term interest rates For example, if a 1-year bond yields 5% and a 2-year bond yields 5.5%, then the 1-year forward rate between year 1 and year 2 is expected to be 6%. RF = (R2T2 – R1T1) / (T2 – T1) = (5.5%*2 – 5%*1) / (2 – 1) = 6% If a yield curve is upward sloping, it indicates that the short term interest rates in the future will rise. Market segmentation theory: interest rates are determined by the demand and supply in each of different markets (short-, medium-, and long-term markets, for example) Liquidity preference theory: investors prefer to invest in short-term funds while firms prefer to borrow for long periods - yield curves tend to be upward sloping  Assignments Quiz (required) Practice Questions: 4.10 and 4.14 19 Chapter 5 - Determination of Forward and Futures Prices             Investment assets vs. consumption assets Short selling Assumptions and notations Forward price for an investment asset that provides no income Forward price for an investment asset that provides a known cash income Forward price for an investment asset that provides a known dividend yield Valuing forward contracts Forward prices and futures prices Stock index futures Currency futures Commodity futures Cost of carry  Investment assets vs. consumption assets An investment asset is an asset that is held mainly for investment purpose, for example, stocks, bonds, gold, and silver A consumption asset is an asset that is held primarily for consumption purpose, for example, oil, meat, and corn  Short selling Selling an asset that is not owned  Assumptions and notations Assumptions Perfect capital markets: transaction costs are ignored, borrowing and lending rates are the same, taxes are ignored (or subject to the same tax rate), and arbitrage profits are exploited away Arbitrage profit is the profit from a portfolio that involves 1. Zero net cost 2. No risk in terminal portfolio value 3. Positive profit Notations T: time until delivery date (years) S0: spot price of the underlying asset today F0: forward price today = delivery price K if the contract were negotiated today r: zero coupon risk-free interest rate with continuous compounding for T years to maturity 20  Forward price for an investment asset that provides no income Consider a forward contract negotiated today T = 3 months = ¼ year, S0 = $40, r = 5%, F0 = ? General solution: F0 = S0 erT (5.1) So, F0 = $40.50 If equation (5.1) does not hold, an arbitrage opportunity exists For example, if F0 = 43 > 40.50, an arbitrage profit = 43 - 40.50 = $2.50 Strategy: (Forward price is too high relative to spot price) Today: (1) Borrow $40.00 at 5% for 3 months and buy one unit of the asset (2) Sell a 3-month forward contract for one unit of the asset at $43 After 3 months: (1) Make the delivery and collect $43 (2) Reply the loan of $40.50 = 40e0.05*3/12 (3) Count for profit = 43.00 - 40.50 = $2.50 If F0 = 39 < 40.50, an arbitrage profit = 40.50 - 39 = $1.50 Show the proof by yourself as an exercise Application: stocks, bonds, and any other securities that do not pay current income during the specified period  Forward price for an investment asset that provides a known cash income Consider a forward contract negotiated today T = 3 months = ¼ year, S0 = $40, r = 5% In addition, the asset provides a known income in the future (dividends, coupon payments, etc.) with a PV of I = $4, F0 = ? General solution, F0 = (S0 -I)erT (5.2) So F0 = $36.45 If F0 = 38 > 36.45, an arbitrage profit = 38 - 36.45 = $1.55 Show the proof by yourself as an exercise 21 If F0 = 35 < 36.45, an arbitrage profit = 36.45 - 35 = $1.45 Strategy: (Forward price is too low relative to spot price) Today: (1) Short sell one unit of asset at the spot price for $40.00 (2) Deposit $40.00 at 5% for 3 months (3) Buy a 3-month forward contract for one unit of the asset at $35 After 3 months: (1) Take money out of the bank ($40.50) (2) Take the delivery by paying $35.00 and return the asset plus income ($4.05) (3) Count for profit = 40.50 - 35.00 - 4.05 = $1.45 Application: stocks, bonds, and any other securities that pay a known cash income during the specified period  Forward price for an investment asset that provides a known yield Consider a forward contract negotiated today T = 3 months = ¼ year, S0 = $40, r = 5% In addition, a constant yield which is paid continuously as the percentage of the current asset price is q = 4% per year. Then, in a smaller time interval, for example, return on one day = current asset price * 0.04/365, F0 = ? General solution: F0 = S0 e(r-q)T (5.3) So, F0 = $40.10 If F0 = 42 > 40.10, an arbitrage profit = 42 - 40.10 = $1.90 Strategy: (forward price is too high relative to spot price) Today: (1) Borrow $40 at 5% for 3 months and buy one unit of the asset at $40 (2) Sell a 3-month forward contract for one unit of the asset at $42 After 3 months: (1) Make the delivery and collect $42.00 (2) Pay off the loan in the amount of $40.50 (40e0.05*3/12) (3) Receive a known yield for three months of $0.40 (3/12 of 40*0.04) (4) Count for profit = 42 - 40.50 + 0.40 = $1.90 If F0 = 39 < 40.10, an arbitrage profit = 40.10 - 39 = $1.10 Show the proof by yourself as an exercise Application: stock indexes 22  Valuing forward contracts K: delivery price f: value of the forward contract today, f = 0 at the time when the contract is first entered into the market (F0 = K) In general: f = (F0 - K) e-rT for a long position, where F0 is the current forward price For example, you entered a long forward contract on a non-dividend-paying stock some time ago. The contract currently has 6 months to maturity. The risk-free rate is 10%, the delivery price is $24, and the current market price of the stock is $25. Using (5.1), F0 = 25e0.1*6/12 = $26.28, f = (26.28 - 24) e-0.1*6/12 = $2.17 Similarly, f = (K - F0) e-rT for a short position  Forward prices and futures prices Under the assumption that the risk-free interest rate is constant and the same for all maturities, the forward price for a contract with a certain delivery date is the same as the futures price for a contract with the same delivery date. Futures price = delivery price determined as if the contract were negotiated today The formulas for forward prices apply to futures prices after daily settlement Patterns of futures prices It increases as the time to maturity increases - normal market Futures price Normal Maturity month It decreases as the time to maturity increases - inverted market Futures price Inverted Maturity month Futures prices and expected future spot prices Keynes and Hicks: hedgers tend to hold short futures positions and speculators tend to hold long futures position, futures price < expected spot price because speculators ask for compensation for bearing the risk (or hedgers are willing to pay a premium to reduce the risk) 23 Risk and return explanation: if the return from the asset is not correlated with the market (beta is zero), k = r, F0 = E(ST); if the return from the asset is positively correlated with the market (beta is positive), k > r, F0 < E(ST); if the return from the asset is negatively correlated with the market (beta is negative) k < r, F0 > E(ST)  Stock index futures Stock index futures: futures contracts written on stock indexes Futures contracts can be written on many indices, such as DJIA: price weighted, $10 time the index Nikkei: price weighted, $5 times the index S&P 500 index: value weighted, $250 times the index NASDAQ 100 index: value weighted, $20 times the index Stock index futures prices, recall (5.3) General formula: F0 = S0 e(r-q)T, where q is the continuous dividend yield If this relationship is violated, you can arbitrage - index arbitrage Speculating with stock index futures If you bet that the general stock market is going to fall, you should short (sell) stock index futures If you bet that the general stock market is going to rise, you should long (buy) stock index futures Hedging with stock index futures Short hedging: take a short position in stock index futures to reduce downward risk in portfolio value Long hedging: take a long position in stock index futures to not miss rising stock market  Currency futures Exchange rate and exchange rate risk Direct quotes vs. indirect quotes 1 pound / $1.60 (direct) vs. 0.625 pound / $1.00 (indirect) Exchange rate risk: risk caused by fluctuation of exchange rates 24 Currency futures prices, recall (5.3) General formula: F0 = S0 e(r-rf)T, where rf is the foreign risk-free rate For example, if the 2-year risk-free interest rate in Australia and the US are 5% and 7% respectively, and the spot exchange rate is 0.6200 USD per AUD, then the 2-year forward exchange rate should be 0.6453. If the 2-year forward rate is 0.6300, arbitrage opportunity exists. To arbitrage: (1) Borrow 1,000 AUD at 5%, convert it to 620 USD and invest it in the U.S. at 7% for 2 years (713.17 USD in 2 years) (2) Enter a 2-year forward contract to buy AUD at 0.6300 (3) After 2 years, collect 713.17 USD and convert it to 1,132.02 AUD (4) Repay the loan plus interest of 1,105.17 AUD (5) Net profit of 26.85 AUD (or 16.91 USD) Speculation using foreign exchange futures If you bet that the British pound is going to depreciate against US dollar you should sell British pound futures contracts If you bet that the British pound is going to appreciate against US dollar you should buy British pound futures contracts Hedging with foreign exchange futures to reduce exchange rate risk  Commodity futures Commodities: consumption assets with no investment value, for example, wheat, corn, crude oil, etc. For commodity futures prices, recall (5.1), (5.2), and (5.3) For commodities with no storage cost: F0 = S0erT For commodities with storage cost: F0 = (S0 + U)erT, where U is the present value of all storage costs F0 = S0 e(r+u)T, where u is the storage costs per year as a percentage of the spot price Consumption purpose: reluctant to sell commodities and buy forward contracts F0  S0 erT, with no storage cost F0  (S0 + U)erT, where U is the present value of all storage costs F0  S0 e(r+u)T, where u is the storage costs per year as a percentage of the spot price 25  Cost of carry It measures the storage cost plus the interest that is paid to finance the asset minus the income earned on the asset Asset Stock without dividend Stock index with dividend yield q Currency with interest rate rf Commodity with storage cost u  Futures price F0 = S0 erT F0 = S0 e(r-q)T F0 = S0 e(r-rf)T F0 = S0 e(r+u)T Assignments Quiz (required) Practice Questions: 5.9, 5.10, 5.14, and 5.15 26 Cost of carry r r-q r-rf r+u Chapter 6 - Interest Rate Futures       Day count and quotation conventions T-bond futures T-bill futures Duration Duration based hedging Speculation and hedging with interest rate futures  Day count and quotation conventions Three day counts are used in the U.S. Actual/actual: T-bonds For example, the coupon payment for a T-bond with 8% coupon rate (semiannual payments on March 1 and September 1) between March 1 and July 3 is (124/184)*4 = $2.6957 30/360: corporate and municipal bonds For example, for a corporate bond with the same coupon rate and same time span mentioned above, the coupon payment is (122/180)*4 = $2.7111 Actual/360: T-bills and other money market instruments The reference period is 360 days but the interest earned in a year is 365/360 times the quoted rate Quotes for T-bonds: dollars and thirty-seconds for a face value of $100 For example, 95-05 indicates that it is $95 5/32 ($95.15625) for $100 face value or $95,156.25 for $100,000 (contract size) Minimum tick = 1/32 Daily price limit is 3 full points (96 of 1/32, 3% of the face value, equivalent to $3,000) For T-bonds, cash price = quoted cash price + accrued interest Example 0 182 days 40 days 142 days remaining until next coupon Suppose annual coupon is $8 and the quoted cash price is 99-00 (or $99 for a face value of $100) then the cash price = 99 + (4/182)*40 = $99.8791 27 T-bills: sold at a discount with no interest payment, the face value is $1,000,000 Price quotes are for a face value of $100 The cash price and quoted price are different For example, if y is the cash price of a T-bill that will mature in n days, then the quoted price (P) is given by P = (360/n)*(100 - y), known as the discount rate If y = 98, n = 91 days, then the quoted price = 7.91 Return on the T-bill = (2/98)*(365/91) = 8.186% (2/98 = 2.04% for 91 days)  T-bond futures T-bond futures are quoted as T-bonds and the price received for each $100 face value with a short position upon delivery is Invoice amount = quoted futures price*(CF) + AI, where CF = conversion factor and AI = accrued interest For example, if the quoted futures price = 90-00, CF = 1.38, and AI = $3.00, then Invoice amount = 90(1.38) + 3.00 = $127.20 Conversion factor: equal to the quoted price the bond would have per dollar of principal on the first day of the delivery month on the assumption that the interest rate for all maturities equals 6% per year (with semiannual compounding) For example, let’s consider a 10% coupon bond with 20 years and 2 months to maturity. For the purpose of calculating the CF, the bond is assumed to mature in 20 years (round down to the nearest 3 months). The value of the bond is 40 5  (1  0.03) i 1 i  100  $146.23 . Dividing by the face value gives the CF 1.4623. (1  0.03) 40 (Or you can use a financial calculator to figure out the CF: PMT = 5, FV = 100, N = 40, i/y = 3%, solve for PV = 146.23, CF = 146.23/100 = 1.4623) 28 Cheapest-to-deliver issues Since the person with a short position can deliver any T-bond that has more than 15 years to maturity and that it is not callable within 15 years, which bond is the cheapest to deliver? Recall: invoice price = quoted futures price*(CF) + AI, where CF = conversion factor, and AI = accrued interest The cost of purchasing a bond is Cash price = quoted cash price + accrued interest The net cost is the difference between the cash price and the invoice price Net cost to deliver = quoted cash price - (quoted futures price*CF) (Note, AI is cancelled out) Choose the bond that minimizes the net cost to deliver Determining the quoted T-bond futures price, use F0 = (S0 - I)erT Example 6.1: choose a bond from below to deliver, assuming the most recent settlement price (quoted futures price) is 93-08 (or 93.25) Bond Quoted cash price CF 1 99.50 1.0382 2 143.50 1.5188 3 119.75 1.2615 The cheapest-to-deliver is bond 2  Net cost to deliver 99.50 – (93.25*1.0382) = $2.69 143.50 – (93.25*1.5188) = $1.87 119.75 – (93.25*1.2615) = $2.12 T-bill futures Call for delivery of T-bills with a face value of $1,000,000 and a time to maturity of 90 days The contract size is $1,000,000 with delivery months set in March, June, September, and December No daily price limit Minimum tick is 0.01% of discount yield (one basis point, equivalent to $25.00; or when the interest rate changes by 1 basis point, 0.01%, the interest earned on $1,000,000 face value for 3 months changes by $25.00) 29 V = $1,000,000 T1 0 T2 time 90 days r1 r2 Determining the current (present) value, use PV = V e  r2T2 Determining the futures price, use F = PV e r1T1 Why buy a futures contract on T-bills? To lock in a short-term interest rate Eurodollar futures are similar to T-bill futures  Duration A measure of how long on average the bondholder has to wait before receiving cash payments Suppose a bond provides cash flows ct at time t. The bond price B and bond yield y (with continuous compounding) are related by: B n c e  yti i i 1  The duration of the bond (D) is defined as: D  n t c e  yti i 1 i i B c i e  yti =  ti [ ] B i 1 n For a small change in yield ( y ) the change in bond price is approximately: B  n B dB   Dy y   y  ci t i e  yti   BDy or dy B i 1 Percentage change in bond price = – duration*the change in yield (where yield is expressed with continuous compounding) 30 For example, a 3-year bond with coupon rate of 10%, payable semiannually, sells for 94.213 and has a yield to maturity of 12% (continuous compounding). The duration for the bond is 2.653 years. If the yield increases by 0.1% the bond price will drop by 0.250 to 93.963 [-94.213*2.653*(0.001) = -0.25]. Time (years) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Total Cash flow ($) 5 5 5 5 5 105 130 Present value 4.709 4.435 4.176 3.933 3.704 73.256 94.213 Weight 0.050 0.047 0.044 0.042 0.039 0.778 1.000 Time*weight 0.025 0.047 0.066 0.083 0.098 2.333 2.653 What if y is not continuous (for example, semiannual compounding)? If y is not expressed with continuous compounding then B   BD * y , where D* is called modified duration D*  D 2.653   2.50 , where D is the duration of the bond and y is the yield 1  y / m 1  0.12 2 with a compounding frequency of m times per year For a zero-coupon bond, the duration is equal to the time to maturity  Duration based hedging Interest rate risk: interest rate price risk vs. interest rate reinvestment risk Interest rate price risk: risk that the bond value (price) falls when the market interest rates rise Reinvestment risk: risk that the interest received will be reinvested at a lower rate Relationship between duration and bond price volatility: B   BDy Define FC: contract price for the interest rate futures contract DF: duration of the asset underlying the futures contract at the maturity of the futures contract P: forward value of the portfolio being hedged at the maturity of the hedge (assumed to be the value of the portfolio today) DP: duration of the portfolio at the maturity of the hedge 31 Then we have approximations of P   PD P y and FC   FC D F y , the optimal number of contracts to hedge against an uncertain y is N*  PD P , called duration-based hedge ratio FC D F For example, on August 2, a fund manager with $10 million invested in government bonds is concerned that interest rates are expected to be volatile over the next 3 months. The manager decides to use December T-bond futures contract to hedge the portfolio. The current futures price is 93-02, or 93.0625 for $100 face value. Since the contract size is $100,000, the futures price is $93,062.50. Further suppose that the duration of the bond portfolio in 3 months is 6.80 years. The cheapest-to-deliver bond in the T-bond contract is expected to be a 20-year 12% coupon bond. The yield on this bond is currently 8.8% and the duration is 9.20 years at maturity of the futures contract. The duration-based hedge ratio is 10,000,000 6.80 N*  *  79.42 contracts, short positions 93,062.50 9.20 Application of bond immunization: banking management, pension fund management  Speculation and hedging with interest rate futures Speculation with outright positions A speculator with a long position is betting that the interest rate is going to fall so the price of interest rate futures is going to rise A speculator with a short position is betting that the interest rate is going to rise so the price of interest rate futures is going to fall Speculation with spreads An intra-commodity T-bill spread: speculating the term structure of interest rates, for example, T-bill futures with different maturities (nearby vs. distant) An inter-commodity spread: speculating on shifting risk levels between different instruments, for example, T-bill futures vs. T-bond futures Hedging with interest rate futures A long hedge: take a long position in futures market to reduce interest rate risk A short hedge: take a short position in futures market to reduce interest rate risk  Assignments Quiz (required) Practice Questions: 6.8, 6.9, and 6.10 32 Chapter 7 - Swaps        Swaps Interest-rate swaps Role of financial intermediary Comparative advantage Valuation of interest-rate swaps Currency swaps Valuation of currency swaps  Swaps A swap is a private agreement between two companies to exchange cash flows in the future according to a prearranged formula: an extension of a forward contract. For example, Intel and Microsoft agreed a swap in interest payments on a notional principal of $100 million. Microsoft agreed to pay Intel a fixed rate of 5% per year while Intel agreed to pay Microsoft the 6-month LIBOR. 5.0% (fixed) Intel Microsoft LIBOR (floating) Cash flows to Microsoft in a $100 million 3-year interest rate swap when a fixed rate of 5% is paid and LIBOR is received: Date 3-5-2010 9-5-2010 3-5-2011 9-5-2011 3-5-2012 9-5-2012 3-5-2013 6-month LIBOR 4.20% 4.80% 5.30% 5.50% 5.60% 5.90% Floating cash flow Fixed cash flow Net cash flow +2.10 million +2.40 million +2.65 million +2.75 million +2.80 million +2.95 million -2.50 million -2.50 million -2.50 million -2.50 million -2.50 million -2.50 million -0.40 million -0.10million +0.15 million +0.25 million +0.30 million +0.45 million Cash flows to Intel will be the same in amounts but opposite in signs. The floating rate in most interest rate swaps is the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR). It is the rate of interest for deposits between large international banks. 33  Interest-rate swaps Using swaps to transform a liability For example, Microsoft could transform a floating-rate loan to a fixed rate loan while Intel could transform a fixed rate loan to a floating-rate loan 5.2% 5.0% Intel Microsoft LIBOR LIBOR + 0.1% After swap, Intel pays LIBOR + 0.2% and Microsoft pays 5.1% Using swaps to transform an asset For example, Microsoft could transform an asset earning fixed-rate to an asset earning floating-rate while Intel could transform an asset that earns floating-rate to an asset that earns fixed-rate 4.7% 5.0% Intel LIBOR - 0.2% Microsoft LIBOR After swap, Intel earns 4.8% and Microsoft earns LIBOR - 0.3% We will ignore the day count convention (LIBOR uses 360 days per year while a fixed rate uses 365 days per year)  Role of financial intermediary Arranging the swaps to earn about 3-4 basis points (0.03-0.04%) Refer to the swap between Microsoft and Intel again when a financial institution is involved to earn 0.03% (shared evenly by both companies) 5.2% 4.985% 5.015% Institution Intel LIBOR Microsoft LIBOR LIBOR + 0.1% After swap, Intel pays LIBOR + 0.215%, Microsoft pays 5.115%, and the financial institution earns 0.03% 34  Comparative advantage Some companies have a comparative advantage when borrowing in fixed rate (U.S dollars) markets, whereas others have a comparative advantage in floating-rate (foreign currency) markets. Let us consider two corporations, AAACorp and BBBCorp. Both companies are going to borrow $10 million and are facing the following rates. Assume that AAACorp wants floating rate and BBBCorp wants fixed rate: AAACorp BBBCorp Fixed 4.00% 5.20% Floating LIBOR - 0.1% LIBOR + 0.6% How can a swap benefit both companies? Answer: AAACorp borrows at the fixed rate and BBBCorp borrows at the floating rate and then two companies engage in a swap Without a financial institution involved 4.00% 4.35% AAACorp BBBCorp LIBOR LIBOR + 0.6% After swap, AAACorp pays LIBOR - 0.35% and BBBCorp pays 4.95% (both benefit by 0.25%) The total benefit is equal to a - b (0.5%), where a is the difference between the interest rates in fixed rate markets (1.20%) and b is the difference between the interest rates in floating rate markets (0.7%). The total gain doesn’t have to be shared evenly. When a financial institution is involved and it earns 4 basis points (0.04%): 4.00% 4.33% AAACorp 4.37% Institution LIBOR BBBCorp LIBOR LIBOR + 0.6% After swap, AAACorp pays LIBOR - 0.33% and BBBCorp pays 4.97% (both benefit by 0.23%) while the financial institution earns 0.04%. The total gain remains at 0.5%. 35  Valuation of interest-rate swaps Vswap = Bfl - Bfix (or Vswap = Bfix - Bfl), where Bfix is the present value of fixed-rate bond underlying the swap and Bfl is the preset value of floating-rate bond underlying the swap Suppose that a financial institution has agreed to pay 6-month LIBOR and receive 8% fixed rate (semiannual compounding) on a notional principal of $100 million. The swap has a remaining life of 1.25 years. The LIBOR rates with continuous compounding for 3month, 9-month, and 15-month maturities are 10%, 10.5%, and 11%, respectively. The 6month LIBOR rate at the last payment date was 10.2%. Time Years 0.25 0.75 1.25 Bfix cash flow 4.0 4.0 104.0 Bfl cash flow 105.10 Discount factor 0.9753 0.9243 0.8715 Present value Bfix cash flow 3.901 3.697 90.640 Present value Bfl cash flow 102.505 Vswap = Bfix - Bfl = (3.901+3.697+90.640) – 102.505 = -4.267 million Note: Bfl = L (notional principal immediately after an interest payment) and therefore Bfl = 100 + 100*0.051 = 105.10 million after 3 months If the financial institution pays fixed and receives floating, the value of the swap would be +4.267 million (again a zero-sum game)  Currency swaps A currency swap is an agreement to exchange interest payments and principal in one currency for principal and interest payments in another currency. It can transform a loan in one currency into a loan in another currency. Let us consider two corporations, GM and Qantas Airway. Both companies are going to borrow money and are facing the following rates. Assume GM wants to borrow AUD and Qantas Airway wants to borrow USD. GE Qantas USD 5.00% 7.00% AUD 7.60% 8.00% How can a swap benefit both companies? Answer: GE borrows USD and Qantas borrows AUD and then two companies engage in a swap Since a = 2.00% and b = 0.4%, therefore the net gain = a – b = 1.6% 36 Assuming a financial institution arranges the swap and earns 0.2% (by taking the exchange rate risk) 5.0% USD 5.0% GE USD 6.3% Quntas Institution USD AUD 6.9% AUD 8.0% AUD 8.0% Net outcome: GE borrows AUD at 6.9% (0.7% better than it would be if it went directly to AUD markets) Quntas borrows USD at 6.3% (0.7% better than it would be if it went directly to USD markets) Financial institution receives 1.3% USD and pays 1.1% AUD and has a net gain of 0.2%  Valuation of currency swaps Vswap = BD - S0BF (or Vswap = S0BF - BD), where S0 is the spot exchange rate, BF and BD are the values of the foreign-denominated bond underlying the swap and the U.S. dollar bond underlying the swap Swap examples 1. Companies X and Y have been offered the following rates per year on a $5 million ten-year loan: Fixed-rate Floating-rate Company X 7.0% LIBOR + 0.5% Company Y 8.8% LIBOR + 1.5% Company X requires a floating-rate loan and Company Y requires a fixed-rate loan. Design a swap that will net a financial institution acting as an intermediary 0.1% per year and it will be equally attractive to X and Y. Answer: a = 1.8% (8.8% - 7.0%) and b = 1.0% [(LIBOR + 1.5%) – (LIBOR + 0.5%)], swap provides a net gain of 0.8% (1.8% - 1.0%), less 0.1% for the bank, leaving 0.7% net gain to be shared by X and Y (0.35% each) After the swap, X pays floating at LIBOR + 0.15%, Y pays fixed at 8.45%, and the institution earns 0.1% 37 2. Companies A and B are facing the following annual interest rates in US and UK: Sterling U.S. Dollar Company A 8.0% 7.0% Company B 7.6% 6.2% A wants to borrow dollar and B wants to borrow sterling. Design a swap that will net a financial institution acting as an intermediary 0.10% per year and it will be equally attractive to both companies. Answer: a = 0.4% (8.0% - 7.6%) and b = 0.8% (7.0 - 6.2%), a swap provides a total gain of 0.4% (0.8% - 0.4%), less 0.1% for the bank, leaving 0.3% net gain to be shared by A and B (0.15% each) After the swap, A borrows dollar at 6.85%, B borrows sterling at 7.45%, and the financial institution earns 0.1%. 38