The Roman Empire

THE ROMAN EMPIRE Some Notes Imperator Caesar Augustus (63 B.C. to 14 A.D.) (formerly 'Octavian'), grandson of Julius Caesar's sister, adopted by Caesar in his will (44 B.C.). Young Caesar was thus the inheritor of the family priesthoods, the family property, the amicitiae (system of political friendships through fides ) and clients (including potentially the ex-soldiers of the late dictator Caesar). Conflict of interest and ambitions between young Caesar, Marcus Antonius (consul of 44 B.C. and the Dictator Caesar's closest political operative), and M. Aemilius Lepidus (Caesar's Master of the Horse in his dictatorship) brought on a political crisis which resulted in the creation of an alliance called the Second Triumvirate (November, 43 B.C) by the Lex Titia, 5 years (43-38) and a five-year continuation (38-33). Who had what power in 32 is an interesting question. FOUNDATIONS OF THE PRINCIPATE (princeps = `First citizen' or `Prince') • From 31-23: The Army (78 legions, gradually being reduced), money (the treasury of Egypt), and annual reelection to the consulship. *** On January 13-16, 27 B.C. Young Caesar presided over what he called `the Restoration of the Republic'. He was awarded the title Augustus by a `grateful' Senate as an addition to his name, and thus became Imperator Caesar Augustus officially. • After 23 B.C.: ("The Second Settlement", in June?). Though no longer consul every year the Princeps held: • • Tribunician Power (but not the actual office) the powers and immunities which went with being an official of the Plebs: right to veto the acts of magistrates of the state inside the city limits (i.e. negative control of the central government) The power of a provincial governor (`proconsular imperium') Augustus got himself assigned a `province' ("sphere of activity") which was larger in size geographically than all the provinces of the other senatorial governors combined. Augustus' province happened to include all the areas where active military operations were in progress or contemplated. The IMPERIUM (`right to command') of Augustus was of a special kind, allowing him to interfere whenever he wanted in the provinces of other (senatorial) governors (`imperium maius proconsulare') • Army: 22 or 23 of the 27 legions which were kept were under the control of the Emperor. Thus real military power was in his hands alone. In 6 A.D. Augustus set up a special treasury to grant discharge bonuses (`aerarium militare', the `Military Treasury'). This got the soldiers out of politics to a large degree, since their futures were made certain; this treasury was kept full with a 5% tax on the estates of Roman citizens (an inheritance tax) and a 1% general sales tax. Appearances of constitutionality were preserved by making senior Roman senators the Commissioners of The Military Treasury--but the Emperor always took care to choose and recommend reliable and cooperative senators (expraetors) to the job. The Army was always stationed in areas remote from Italy and the city of Rome. Forces were reduced to the absolute minimum necessary for border defense. Terms of enlistment were regularized: 16 years for the Praetorian Guard; 20 years for a citizen legionary soldier; 26 years for allied soldiers and navy personnel. Pay was stabilized and guaranteed (225 denarii = 900 HS per annum for simple legionaries, with a discharge bonus of a minimum of 3000 denarii = 12,000 HS , nearly 13 years' pay). • Special individual grants: right to speak first in the Senate, a seat on the consuls' platform in the Senate, the right to retain imperium even when in the City. Succession to the Throne: Legally, there was no throne; the Emperor was only a magistrate with very wide special grants of traditional powers, and every time a new emperor came to power the Senate and People had to pass a special law, authorizing new grants of power (a lex de imperio). This meant that legally there was no such thing as hereditary succession in a family to the Emperorship, though somebody inevitably did inherit the private wealth of the old emperor and the patronage that went with it. In fact, the Roman Emperor had become the Universal Patron of the entire Roman Empire. Tiberius was the heir of Augustus only in private law, though he already (at the time of Augustus' death) shared by legal votes in all of Augustus' powers as a magistrate. Ways of Succeeding to the Throne: (in spite of the constitution, in fact) • • • Hereditary succession: in fact, training a son or other relative to succeed to one's influence and position: Augustus & Tiberius, Vespasian & Titus. Adoption: Galba and Piso (who were promptly assassinated); Trajan & Hadrian; Hadrian and Pius Military Action: An army proclaims its general as "Commander in Chief" (Imperator = Emperor) and the unhappy general must either establish the claim or die as a treasonous traitor. Civil war is usually the result (Septimius Severus). Dynasties • Julio-Claudians (27 B.C. to 68 A.D.) Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero. • Year of Four Emperors (68/9): Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian.. • Flavians (69-96): Vespasian, Titus, Domitian.. • The `Good Emperors' (adoptive): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius. Marcus' son Commodus (181-192) was neither adopted nor good; he was assassinated before dawn on January 1, 193 by his own family and guards.. • Severans (193-235): [Pertinax], Septimius Severus, Caracalla, [Macrinus], Elagabalus, Severus Alexander.. • Time of Troubles (235-284): frequent changes in emperors, several claimants at one time, civil wars encouraged by armies which became nervous again about their security. Eventually an economic collapse in the 270's as a result of these civil wars, of debasement of the coinage to pay for the wars, of runaway inflation, and of the collapse of international trading, of long term financing, etc. By ca. 275 the Empire was back to a barter economy.. • 249-251 Emperor Decius: systematic persecution of Christians:. -Christianity is an illegal cult, not registered with the government or under the administration of a city. Its `secret' meetings were legally considered subversion. -Christians refuse to participate in `pagan' religion, including the patriotic worship of the emperors (Imperial Cult). Therefore Christians are suspicious persons: they will not serve as soldiers, public officials, contributors to gymnasiums, theaters, temples, imperial festivals, etc. The impression grows that Christians do not pull their weight in society. -"Catch 22": In trials before Roman officials, the bottom line is always reached when a provincial governor orders Christians (through his imperium) to sacrifice to the Roman gods and emperors. When Christians refuse, they are considered to be in defiance of the government (legally called contumacia), which is itself a capital crime. Their deaths, then, are always legally correct and justified. • -252 ff. Invasions of Barbarians on a large scale: Black Sea area, Danube frontier, Thrace, Asia Minor. Goths and Persians. Syria captured by the Sassanid Persian Monarch Shapur I the Great, who actually captured the Emperor Valerian (260) and made a footstool out of him. • Separatist `Empires' emerge: Gallic Empire (260's), Empire of Palmyra in the Middle East (ca. 267-273): Queen Zenobia of Palmyra vs. Emperor Aurelian (270-275). • Emergence of DIOCLETIAN as Emperor (284-305): creation of a new system (`The Dominate') and a new approach to problems of government. The Empire was reunified, but in the single Empire there were going to be: • a senior Augustus and a junior Augustus (stationed in east and west) • Caesar for each Augustus, a sort of vice-President (only with intelligence, capability, power, and work to do). The Caesar would become Augustus when his senior retired; there was supposed to be a 20-year term. [This system was not going to divide the Empire in half: whatever decisions one Augustus or Caesar made would be ratified and extended by the others, and would be considered valid only when both groups did so.]