Foundations of Environmental Science Study Guide 1

INTRODUCTION ENVIRONMENT organisms. -refers to the surrounding conditions that affect SCIENCE -a process used to solve problems or develop an understanding of nature that involves testing possible answers. ENGINEERING -is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to design, build, and maintain structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that solve practical problems and improve the quality of life. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE -is an interdisciplinary field that includes both social aspects of human impact on the world. -is a mixture of the traditional science, individual and societal values, economic factors, and political awareness that are important to solving environmental problems. -involves an understanding of scientific economic influences, and political action principles, -a decision that may be supportable from a scientific or economic point of view may not be supportable from a political point of view without modification. -is the study of interaction of earth’s system and human system (air, water, land, and life). -study how humans interact with environment *major goal is to understand and solve environmental problems *study 2 main types of interactions between humans and the environment -how we use natural resources -how our actions alter the environment *one important foundation of environmental science is ecology -involves an understanding that the natural world is organized into interrelated units called ecosystem. *interrelatedness is a core concept to environmental science * major fields that contribute to Environmental Science: biology, earth science, physics, chemistry, social science, politics, laws, sociology, politics, psychology, engineering, ethics, agriculture and economics. EARTH -is the third planet from the sun and the only known celestial body that supports life. -is unique due to its atmosphere, abundance of liquid water, and diverse ecosystems. COMPONENTS OF EARTH SYSTEM The Earth system consists of five main components that interact with each other to shape the environment and sustain life. These components are: 1. Atmosphere  The layer of gases surrounding Earth, including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases.  Functions: Regulates temperature, provides oxygen for life, protects from harmful solar radiation, and plays a key role in weather and climate. The Earth's atmosphere is divided into several distinct layers, each characterized by differences in temperature, composition, and other properties. From the surface of the Earth outward, the primary layers of the atmosphere are: 1. Troposphere  Altitude: Extends from the Earth's surface up to about 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles) high, varying with latitude (thicker at the equator and thinner at the poles).  Characteristics: o Contains most of the atmosphere's mass (about 75% of its gases and 99% of its water vapor). o The layer where weather occurs, including clouds, rain, and storms. o Temperature decreases with altitude, averaging about 6.5°C (11.7°F) per kilometer.  Boundary: The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the tropopause. 2. Stratosphere  Altitude: Ranges from about 15 kilometers (9 miles) to 50 kilometers (31 miles) above the Earth's surface.  Characteristics: o Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. Temperature increases with altitude due to the absorption of UV radiation by the ozone layer.  Boundary: The boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere is called the stratopause. o 3. Mesosphere  Altitude: Extends from about 50 kilometers (31 miles) to 85 kilometers (53 miles) above the Earth's surface.  Characteristics: o Temperature decreases with altitude, making it the coldest layer of the atmosphere. This layer is where most meteorites burn up upon entering the Earth's atmosphere.  Boundary: The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere is called the mesopause. o 4. Thermosphere  Altitude: Extends from about 85 kilometers (53 miles) to between 500 and 1,000 kilometers (310-620 miles) above the Earth's surface.  Characteristics: o Temperature increases significantly with altitude due to the absorption of high-energy UV and X-ray radiation from the Sun. Contains a small percentage of the atmosphere's overall mass but is important for the formation of the auroras (Northern and Southern Lights).  Boundary: The thermosphere transitions into the exosphere, but this transition is not as distinct as the boundaries between the other layers. o 5. Exosphere  Altitude: Begins around 500-1,000 kilometers (310-620 miles) above the Earth's surface and extends out to about 10,000 kilometers (6,200 miles).  Characteristics: o The outermost layer where atmospheric particles are so sparse that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. o Gradually transitions into outer space.  Boundary: The exosphere merges with outer space, and there is no clear boundary separating it from space. KEY CONCEPTS  Temperature Gradients: The temperature in each layer changes with altitude. In the troposphere, it decreases with altitude, while in the stratosphere and thermosphere, it increases with altitude.  Composition: The composition of gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, etc.) remains relatively consistent throughout the atmosphere, though their concentration and presence of trace gases (like ozone) vary by layer.  Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure decreases with altitude, being highest at the surface and lowest in the exosphere. Each layer of the atmosphere plays a crucial role in supporting life on Earth, protecting the planet from harmful solar radiation, and influencing weather and climate. 2. Hydrosphere  All of Earth's water, including oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater, and moisture in the atmosphere.  Functions: Essential for life, influences climate, and is involved in the water cycle (precipitation, evaporation, etc.). 3. Lithosphere (Geosphere)  The solid, rocky outer layer of Earth, including the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.  Functions: Provides a foundation for landforms, contains mineral resources, and influences processes like erosion and plate tectonics. 4. Biosphere  All living organisms on Earth, from microorganisms to plants (flora) and animals (fauna), and the ecosystems they inhabit.  Functions: Maintains life through ecosystems, nutrient cycles, and the interactions of living organisms with other Earth systems. 5. Cryosphere  The frozen components of the Earth, including ice caps, glaciers, sea ice, and permafrost.  Functions: Influences climate, sea levels, and ocean currents, and reflects sunlight, helping to regulate Earth's temperature. ECOLOGY -study of how living things interact with each other and their non-living environment ECOSYSTEM APPROACH environmental problems -is an important approach in dealing with ECOSYSTEM -is a region in which the organisms and physical environment form an interacting unit. BIODIVERSITY refers to the variety and variety of life on earth. It encompasses all forms of life, including animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms, as well as the ecosystems in which they live and the genetic diversity within species. Is crucial for the stability and resilience of ecosystems, as well as for the overall health of the planet. HABITAT -is the natural environment where an organism lives, grows, and interacts with other species. It provides the essential conditions, such as food, water, shelter, and space, that an organism needs to survive and reproduce. Habitats can vary greatly in terms of their physical conditions, such as temperature, humidity, light, and the availability of nutrients. TYPES OF HABITATS: 1. Terrestrial Habitats (Land) o Forests: Includes tropical rainforests, temperate forests, and boreal forests. Rich in biodiversity, they provide shelter to a wide range of species. o Deserts: Characterized by low rainfall and extreme temperatures, deserts have organisms adapted to arid conditions. o Grasslands: Open areas dominated by grasses, such as savannas or prairies, with species adapted to grazing and fires. o Mountains: High-altitude areas with cooler temperatures and rugged terrain, supporting unique species adapted to steep and cold environments. 2. Aquatic Habitats (Water) o Marine: Oceans, seas, and coral reefs that cover most of the Earth’s surface. They are home to diverse species, from plankton to large marine mammals. Freshwater: Includes rivers, lakes, ponds, and wetlands. These habitats support species like fish, amphibians, and freshwater plants. 3. Amphibious or Coastal Habitats o Estuaries: Areas where freshwater meets saltwater, creating highly productive environments that support various species, like migratory birds and fish. o Mangroves: Coastal habitats that are key for species like fish, crabs, and birds, offering protection from storms and erosion. o Characteristics of a Habitat:  Physical Factors: Climate, temperature, soil, water availability, and sunlight.  Biological Factors: The availability of food sources, presence of predators, competitors, and symbiotic relationships. Importance of Habitats:  Supports Biodiversity: Habitats provide homes for countless species, supporting the planet's biodiversity.  Ecosystem Services: Healthy habitats contribute to clean air, water, soil fertility, and climate regulation.  Species Adaptations: Over time, species develop specific adaptations to survive in their unique habitats. Habitat Destruction: Habitat destruction, caused by deforestation, urbanization, agriculture, and pollution, is one of the leading threats to biodiversity. Conservation efforts aim to protect natural habitats to ensure the survival of species and ecosystems. Protecting and restoring habitats is key to maintaining the balance of life on Earth. NATURAL RESOURCES that occur naturally in the environment and can be used by humans for economic gain or survival Types of natural resources  Renewable Resources: These resources can replenish themselves naturally over time. Examples: Solar energy, wind energy, biomass, water (through the water cycle), geothermal energy, and timber.  Non-Renewable Resources: These resources are finite and cannot be replaced once they are depleted. o Examples: Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), minerals, metals (iron, copper, gold), and nuclear fuels (uranium).  Inexhaustible Resources: Resources that are continuously available and cannot be depleted, no matter how much they are used. o Examples: Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy. o  Cyclic resources: are resources that are continuously recycled or replenished through natural processes, making them available for use repeatedly over time. o Example: water INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION transportation increased efficiency of agriculture, industry, and ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING -is a branch of engineering that focuses on protecting and improving the environment by applying scientific and engineering principles. -the goal of environmental engineering is to develop sustainable solutions to environmental problems. KEY AREAS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Water treatment and supply Air pollution control Waste management Soil and groundwater remediation Environmental impact assessment (EIA) Sustainable development Climate change mitigation Ecological engineering ENVIRONMENTL ISSUES AND CONCERNS OVERPOPULATION occurs when the number of individuals in a population exceeds the carrying capacity of their environment, leading to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and diminished quality of life. It is a critical issue that can impact both human societies and ecosystems. POLLUTION refers to the introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the natural environment, causing adverse effects on ecosystems, human health, and overall environmental quality. These pollutants can come from various sources, including industrial activities, agriculture, transportation, and human waste. Pollution is a major global challenge that affects air, water, soil, and living organisms. POLLUTANT is a substance that contaminate air, water, or land. some pollution is caused by natural events such as volcanic eruption, but majority is caused by human action. TYPES OF POLLUTION: 1. AIR POLLUTION  Description: Contamination of the atmosphere by harmful gases, particulates, and chemicals.  Sources: Emissions from vehicles, factories, power plants, burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas), and industrial processes.  Common Pollutants: o Carbon dioxide (CO₂): A greenhouse gas contributing to global warming. o Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxide (NO): Cause acid rain. o Particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10): Tiny particles that can damage respiratory health. o Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Harmful chemicals emitted by vehicles, industrial processes, and solvents.  Effects: o Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in humans. o Smog and reduced visibility. o Global warming and climate change. o Damage to wildlife and ecosystems. GLOBAL WARMING refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to human activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs). This phenomenon is a major component of climate change, which encompasses broader changes in weather patterns and atmospheric conditions. Global warming has significant impacts on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies. CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING 1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions o o o o Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): The most significant greenhouse gas emitted by human activities, primarily from burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and deforestation. Methane (CH₄): Released from agricultural practices (e.g., enteric fermentation in livestock), landfills, and the extraction of fossil fuels. Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): Emitted from agricultural activities (e.g., fertilizer use), fossil fuel combustion, and industrial processes. Fluorinated Gases: Synthetic gases used in industrial applications and products, such as refrigerants (e.g., hydrofluorocarbons or HFCs) and solvents. 2. Deforestation o The clearing of forests for agriculture, urban development, and logging reduces the number of trees that absorb CO₂, leading to higher concentrations of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. 3. Industrial Activities o Industrial processes release various greenhouse gases and pollutants into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. 4. Agricultural Practices o Agriculture contributes to global warming through methane emissions from livestock, rice paddies, and nitrous oxide emissions from fertilizers. EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING 1. Rising Temperatures o Increased global temperatures can lead to more frequent and intense heatwaves, impacting human health, agriculture, and ecosystems. 2. Melting Ice Caps and Glaciers o The warming of the planet causes polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. 3. Rising Sea Levels o Melting ice and thermal expansion of seawater lead to higher sea levels, increasing the risk of coastal flooding and erosion. 4. Changes in Weather Patterns o Altered weather patterns can lead to more frequent and severe extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and heavy rainfall. 5. Ocean Acidification o Increased CO₂ levels in the atmosphere lead to higher CO₂ concentrations in oceans, causing ocean acidification, which affects marine life, especially organisms with calcium carbonate shells and skeletons. 6. Impacts on Ecosystems and Biodiversity o Shifts in temperature and weather patterns can disrupt ecosystems, leading to changes in species distribution, migration patterns, and extinction of vulnerable species. 7. Impact on Agriculture o Changes in temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather events can affect crop yields, food security, and livelihoods, particularly in vulnerable regions. 8. Human Health o Increased heat can lead to heat-related illnesses and deaths. Changes in weather patterns can affect the spread of diseases, such as those transmitted by insects. CLIMATE CHANGE refers to significant and lasting changes in global or regional climate patterns, primarily due to human activities that increase greenhouse gas emissions. These changes affect various aspects of the environment, ecosystems, and human societies. ACID RAIN is a form of precipitation that has a lower pH than normal rainwater, making it more acidic. This occurs when sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) are released into the atmosphere, where they react with water vapor, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃). These acids then fall to the ground as acid rain, snow, fog, or dust. CAUSES OF ACID RAIN 1. Emissions from Burning Fossil Fuels o o o Power Plants: Coal-fired power plants are a significant source of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Industrial Processes: Various industries release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Vehicles: Exhaust from cars, trucks, and buses contributes to nitrogen oxides emissions. 2. Natural Sources o o o Volcanoes: Eruptions can release sulfur dioxide and other gases that contribute to acid rain. Wildfires: Fires produce pollutants that can contribute to acid rain formation. Biological Processes: Certain natural processes, such as the decomposition of organic matter, can release nitrogen compounds. EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN 1. Environmental Impact o o o Soil: Acid rain can lower the pH of the soil, reducing its fertility and harming plants by leaching essential nutrients like calcium and magnesium. Water Bodies: Acid rain can lower the pH of rivers, lakes, and streams, harming aquatic life such as fish, amphibians, and insects. It can lead to the death of sensitive species and disrupt ecosystems. Vegetation: Trees and plants can suffer from acid rain, which can damage leaves, reduce growth, and make them more vulnerable to disease and pests. 2. Building and Infrastructure Damage o o Historical Monuments and Buildings: Acid rain can erode and damage stone, marble, and concrete structures, leading to the deterioration of historical monuments and buildings. Metal Structures: Acid rain can corrode metals, such as bridges and railings, reducing their lifespan and structural integrity. 3. Human Health o While acid rain itself does not pose a direct health risk to humans, the pollutants that cause acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) can contribute to respiratory problems, such as asthma and bronchitis, when inhaled. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a group of synthetic compounds that contain chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. They were once widely used in various applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning, and as propellants in aerosol sprays. However, CFCs have been found to have detrimental effects on the ozone layer, which protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Key Characteristics of CFCs 1. Chemical Structure o CFCs are composed of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon atoms. They are typically stable and non-reactive in the lower atmosphere. 2. Common CFC Compounds o o o CFC-11 (Trichlorofluoromethane): Used as a refrigerant and in foam-blowing applications. CFC-12 (Dichlorodifluoromethane): Commonly used in refrigeration and air conditioning. CFC-113 (Trichlorotrifluoroethane): Used as a solvent for cleaning and in industrial applications. Environmental Impact of CFCs 1. Ozone Depletion o o o Stratospheric Ozone Layer: CFCs are stable and do not break down easily in the lower atmosphere. When they reach the stratosphere, they are broken down by UV radiation, releasing chlorine atoms. Chlorine Reaction: The released chlorine atoms react with ozone (O₃) molecules, leading to the destruction of ozone. A single chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules. Ozone Hole: This depletion of the ozone layer leads to the formation of an "ozone hole," particularly over the Antarctic region, allowing increased levels of UV radiation to reach the Earth's surface. 2. Increased UV Radiation o o Health Effects: Increased UV radiation can lead to higher rates of skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans. Environmental Effects: UV radiation can harm phytoplankton in oceans, reduce crop yields, and disrupt ecosystems.