University:
High School
Course:
High School Chemistry
Academic year:

2022
Views:

56

Pages:

75
Author:

5CelestialChronicle

Unit 1 – Atomic Structure and Nuclear Chemistry Introduction to the atom Modern Atomic Theory  All matter is composed of atoms  Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed in ordinary chemical reactions. However, these changes CAN occur in nuclear reactions!  Every atom has different properties from other atoms Ex: grinding down a gold ring Modern Atomic Theory Wait, it’s “only” a theory? Why are we learning it then? •A theory is a powerful term in science Theory -A set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall explanation of some natural phenomenon. Ex: Cell theory & Evolutionary theory We can now see atoms …sort of In 1981 a STM (Scanning Tunneling Microscope) was created. - We can see them and manipulate them. The Kanji characters for "atom." This image was formed by using the tiny tip of an STM to pick up individual atoms of iron and place them on a copper (111) surface. Nanotechnology is coming Atoms can be moved and molded to make various devices such as molecular motors Structure of the Atom Accessing Prior Knowledge 1. Based on your previous science classes, draw a generic atom and label where you’d find the nucleus, protons, neutrons, & electrons. 2. For a common beryllium atom, what is the: a) # protons? b) # neutrons? c) # electrons? Structure of an Atom Electrons (in electron cloud) 1/2000th the mass of P+ & N Nucleus (protons + neutrons) Particle Charge Mass # Location Purpose Electron -1 0 Electron cloud Behavior of element Proton +1 1 Nucleus Identity of element 0 1 Nucleus Stability of nucleus Neutron Charges in an Atom The atom is generally neutral because: # of negative electrons = # of positive protons The nucleus is positively charged because: Contains positive protons (and neutrons which don’t have a charge). The Atomic Scale… most pictures are really inaccurate! Atoms are mostly empty space. nucleus (protons and neutrons) is small and dense and contains most of the mass of the atom.  The electron cloud (where electrons are found) contain most of the volume (3-D space) of an atom. A penny has 2.9 x 1022 atoms. Not drawn to scale (electrons would be really far away) & the nucleus tiny. Atomic sizing… an analogy If you could make an atom as large as a football stadium… …the nucleus would be the size of a grain of sand. The nucleus is really tiny compared to the total size of the atom, but it’s never drawn that way. (electron cloud takes up most of the volume) Fun Fact…Quarks • The particles that make up protons and neutrons. Using the Periodic Table to determining # or protons, neutrons, and electrons Reading the periodic table Atomic #= # of protons & # electrons •Proton # = Unique to every atom (serves as an atom’s identity) •(atoms are neutral and + and – charges must balance out) Reading the periodic table Atomic mass= the average mass of that atom Ex. Not all carbon atoms have the same mass so we have an average (see isotopes). Mass #- = # protons + # neutrons -Round the atomic mass (ex:12 ) -(electrons don’t weigh much so aren’t included in mass #) Practice 17 Cl 35.45 Atomic # Atomic Mass Mass # # protons # electrons # neutrons 17 35.45 35 17 17 18 Forces that hold an Atom Together Forces that hold atoms together Electromagnetic Force Keeps electrons near the nucleus Nuclear Force Keeps nucleus from breaking apart Electromagnetic Force Idea is that opposite charges attract Protons (in the nucleus) & Electrons are attracted to each other because of their opposite charges   Nuclear Force -Electromagnetic forces should cause this nucleus to break apart because of all the protons repelling each other (same charge), but it doesn’t ???? -the “strong force” (aka nuclear forces) overcomes the electromagnetic forces as long as the protons are very close together • The nuclear force is a 100 X’s stronger than the electromagnetic force and acts like a “glue” Joke… Atoms vs. Elements vs. Molecules/Compounds Elements, atoms, & molecules B A atom Element Contains only one kind of atom (pure) D C molecule 2 or more atoms bonded together Molecule (bonded) & element (pure) Isotopes Isotopes -atoms of the same element having different masses due to different #’s of neutrons. (most have at least 2) Isotope (in hyphen notation) Hydrogen–1 (protium) Hydrogen-2 (deuterium) Hydrogen-3 (tritium) Nucleus The # indicates the mass number of the isotope (version) you are referring to. -They’re all still Hydrogen because they have 1 proton 3 Isotopes (versions) of Carbon Isotope = Almost all of the elements have at least 2 different isotopes. Some have 4, 5, or even 10. *They are all carbon because they have 6 protons Calculating average atomic mass Can you guess which isotope is most common in nature? •Carbon-12 because on the periodic table carbon has an average atomic mass of 12.01. Isotope Atomic Mass (amu) % Natural Abundance C - 12 12.00000 98.89 C - 13 13.00335 1.11 Practice with Isotopes One way to show isotopes in writing: Ex: Carbon-14 Atomic # Atomic Mass Mass # # protons 6 14.00 (estimate based on mass #) 14 6 # # electrons neutrons 6 8 Notations- another way to show isotopes Hyphen Notation Uranium-235 Nuclear Notation Mass of Isotope (p+ + no) Element symbol 235 92 U Atomic # (# of p+) Some Isotopes are Radioactive • Some isotopes of elements are unstable (aka radioactive) • Too many protons or neutrons in a nucleus (ratio important) • Large elements (#84 & up) are radioactive • Small ones can be radioactive too (see H isotopes ) Isotopes of hydrogen H-3 is radioactive Intro. to Radioactivity & the Band of Stability What determines if a nucleus will be radioactive?  The neutron to proton ratio in the nucleus is an important part of stability.  Small, stable atoms= 1 neutron for every 1 proton  Bigger, stable atoms = 1.5 neutron/ 1 proton.  Neutrons aid to increase the nuclear force in larger atoms  A nucleus with 84 protons or more will be radioactive regardless of how many neutrons it has (because of proton repulsion) Band of stability graph- isotopes located on edge are radioactive How to use the Band of Stability Graph • Graph the number of protons (x-axis) vs. number of neutrons (yaxis) for the atom. • If your point. . . – off the band of stability = atom does not exist in nature (too unstable) – at the edge of the band of stability = atom is unstable (radioactive). – on the band of stability = atom is stable (not radioactive). Types of Radioactive Decay (Alpha, Beta, & Gamma) & Balancing Nuclear Equations Radioactive Decay (summary) An unstable nucleus will emit particles of alpha, beta, or gamma rays (aka radiation) to become a more stable element. Ex: Uranium --> radioactive particles + Lead (unstable) (stable) This happens naturally & spontaneously Proton to Neutron Ratio determines stability (see band of stability graph) Elements with Atomic # 84 or higher are radioactive no matter how many neutrons they have. (nuclear force only works when protons are close) 3 Types of Radioactive Decay • There are 3 types of particles that can be emitted from an unstable nucleus: – Alpha (α) particles – Beta (β) particles – Gamma (γ) particles Alpha Decay4 2 He Symbol: -Helium nucleus -2 protons & 2 neutrons Problem: the nucleus has too many protons which cause excessive repulsion. Solution: In an attempt to reduce the repulsion between protons, a Helium nucleus is emitted. Beta Decay Symbol- an electron 0 1 e Problem: too many neutrons causes instability. Solution: a neutron is split into a proton and an electron. - electron is then emitted at high speeds. - Proton is kept Gamma Decay- Electromagnetic Radiation 0 0 Y Symbol: - high energy Problem: the nucleus is at too high an energy. Usually accompanies alpha and beta radiation Solution: The nucleus falls down to a lower energy state and, in the process, emits a high energy photon known as a gamma particle. Penetration and Damage by types of Radiation Alpha- thin barrier can stop (they are big and heavy and can’t travel very far) -when inhaled or ingested can be dangerous. Gamma- highly penetrating - Can penetrate deeply into the body & alter DNA (cobalt-60 used for cancer treatment) Beta- clothing, wood, or aluminum can stop. -when inhaled or ingested can be dangerous. Summary of 3 types of radiation Symbol Alpha α Beta ß Gamma γ Nuclear Notation 4 2 He 0 -1 0 0 e Y Identity Damage Helium nucleus Least penetrating electron High energy Most penetrating Balancing Nuclear Reactions Law of conservation of Matter= matter can neither be created nor destroyed (“what goes in must come out”) Unstable element 226 88 Radioactive particle 4 2 Ra Mass 226 He = Protons 88 = 0 Gamma 0Y More stable element 222 86 Rn 4 + 222 (just add top) 2 + 86 (add bottom) is not usually shown in equation (no effect) ½ Life & Calculations Nuclear Decay of Uranium-238 ½ Life & Radioactive Dating • Half Life= Time it takes for ½ of the atoms of a radioactive substance to decay into a stable isotope. Half-life Ex: Carbon-14 = 5730 years Uranium-235 = 704 million years Radioactive Decay Graph • This graph shows the number of parent atoms remaining over time. •The half-life is determined by how many years it takes for ½ if the atoms to decay. •There are 18 out of the original 36 parent atoms after 3.9 years. Radioactive Dating (w/ Carbon-14) • 2 carbon isotopes are found in living things: C-14 (a radioactive isotope) C-12 (more common) • They are incorporated into living things at a constant rate when they eat (1 in every trillion carbons is C-14). C-14 decays, but is constantly replaced. • The ratio of C-14: C-12 is constant while an organism is alive & is the same for every organism. • When an organism dies the C-12 remains the same, but amount of C-14 decreases (decays) at predictable rates. Solving a ½ life Problem A 100 grams of a radioactive substance has a ½ life of 10 years. How many grams are left after 30 years? 100 g 10 yrs  50 g 10 yrs  25 g Solving it mathematically: Y=A(1/2) t/h (100)(1/2) 3 = 12.5g y= final amount A=staring amount T=time H= half life 10 yrs  12.5 grams Sample Problem • The half-life of K-42 is 12.4 hours. How much of a 750g sample is left after 62 hours? Solution: 62 hours/ 12.4 hour = 5 half-lives have gone by. 750g x .5 x.5 x .5 x .5 x .5 (each .5 is a ½ life) Answer: 23.4 g Other types of Nuclear Reactions: Fission & Fusion Both processes require extraordinary conditions to happen, and do not occur naturally on Earth Nuclear Fission - large nucleus is split into two or more smaller nuclei (process sped up by hitting it with a neutron) - Releases Alpha, Beta, Gamma Rays and a lot of energy -used to power nuclear weapons (atomic bombs), nuclear subs, & nuclear power plants Nuclear Fusion - 2 small nuclei smash into each other forming a larger, more stable nucleus. - Pros: Release more energy than fission & cleaner than fission (little radioactive waste) -Cons: Takes a tremendous amount of heat and pressure to get atoms to combine (no technology available yet) -Uses: How our sun produces energy & how hydrogen bombs work Chemical Vs. Nuclear Reactions Chemical Rxn •Atoms rearrange to form new substances (atoms identities do not change) Nuclear Rxn • changing of the atoms nucleus (and thus, the atom’s identity) •Deals with small amounts of •Large amounts of energy released. energy (1 million x’s more than chemical rxns) •See mass defect (E= mc2) Ex: burning of gas CH4 + O2 CO2 +H2O Ex: Fission, Fusion, & radioactive decay. Mass Defect- the mass of an atom is less than the sum of its parts! • Mass of a Helium atom has been mathematically calculated to be: 2 p+: (2 x 1.007276amu)= 2.014552 amu 2 N: (2 x 1.008666 amu)= 2.017330 amu 2 e: (2 x 0.0005486 “) = 0.001097 amu Total mass: 4.032979 amu The actual measured mass of the He atom put together is: 4.00260 amu Why is there a loss in mass? (mass defect) The mass lost during the formation of the atom was converted into energy to help hold the nucleus together. Explaining mass defect: E= mc2 (Energy = mass x speed of light squared) • E=mc2 says that mass can be converted into energy when the nucleus is formed or changed. •In nuclear reactions, large amounts of energy are released when the nucleus changes. •Energy is so large because c2 is speed of light2 and is a huge # ( c = 299,792,458 m/s) Discovery of the Atom Discovery of the Electron In 1897, J.J. Thomson used a cathode ray tube to deduce the presence of a negatively charged particle (the electron). Cathode ray tubes pass electricity through a gas that is contained at a very low pressure. Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment  Alpha particles are helium nuclei  Particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold foil  Particle hits on the detecting screen (film) are recorded Rutherford’s Findings  Most of the particles passed right through  A few particles were deflected  VERY FEW were greatly deflected “Like howitzer shells bouncing off of tissue paper!” Conclusions:  The nucleus is small  The nucleus is dense  The nucleus is positively charged Practical Uses of Nuclear Chemistry Radiation is a natural phenomenon We are exposed frequently to sources of radiation (most naturally) In fact, you emit radiation from K-40 inside you. Mass Spectroscopy Machine that allows for the separation of atoms based on mass. Readout On a Mass Spectra Important Uses of Radioactive Isotopes- Bone Scans Patient is injected with a radioactive isotope (Tc-99) that is attached to another molecule (phosphate). This molecule with a radioactive tag travels through the body and accumulates in areas that bone growth is high (injuries).  A special scanner picks up on the gamma rays being emitted by Tc-99 Uses of Gamma Radiation • Because of it’s high frequency and penetrating power, gamma is useful in: – sterilization of medical equipment by killing bacteria – used to kill bacteria and insects in foodstuffs, particularly meat, marshmallows, pies, eggs, and vegetables, to maintain freshness “Gamma Knife”- Brain tumors are hit with gamma rays in this device. “Atom Smashers” particles are accelerated to high speeds & collided with target atoms. resulting pieces from the collision, as well as emitted radiation, are detected and analyzed. Can learn about the particles that make up the atom and the forces that hold the atom together. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a particle accelerator located at CERN, near Geneva, Switzerland. It lies in a tunnel under France and Switzerland. Joke • A neutron goes into the pub and asks for a pint of beer. • "How much is that?" he asks the barman. • The barman replies ...."For you, no charge." Joke • Proton runs into a bar and claims he just saw big foot run by. • Bar man ask, “are you sure?” • Proton says, “I’m positive” Joke • Silver and copper are @ the bar when gold walks in. • They scream @ gold, " Au- You don't belong here." joke • Why do chemists call helium, curium and barium the medical elements? • A: Because if you can't helium or curium, you barium!