Sinusoidally Driven Systems: Second Order LTI DE’s We start with the second order linear constant coefﬁcient (CC) DE, which as we’ve seen can be interpreted as modeling a damped forced harmonic oscillator. If we further specify the oscillator to be a mechanical system with mass m, damping coefﬁcient b, spring constant k, and with a sinusoidal driving force B cos ωt (with B constant), then the DE is mx �� + bx � + kx = B cos ωt. (1) For many applications it is of interest to be able to predict the periodic response of the system to various values of ω. From this point of view we can picture having a knob you can turn to set the input frequency ω, and a screen where we can see how the shape of the system response changes as we turn the ω-knob. In the sessions on Exponential Response and Gain & Phase Lag we worked out the general case of a sinusoidally driven LTI DE. Specializing these results to the second order case we have: Characteristic polynomial: p(s) = ms2 + bs + k. Complex replacement: mz�� + bz� + kz = Beiωt , x = Re(z). Exponential Response Formula: zp = ⇒ x p = Re(z p ) = � Beiωt Beiωt = p(iω ) k − mω 2 + ibω B cos(ωt − φ), (k − mω 2 )2 + b2 ω 2 � � bω −1 where φ = Arg( p(iω )) = tan . (In this case φ must be be k − mω 2 tween 0 and π. We say φ is in the ﬁrst or second quadrants.) B , we can write the periodic response x p Letting A = � (k − mω 2 )2 + b2 ω 2 as x p = A cos(ωt − φ). The complex gain, which is deﬁned as the ratio of the amplitude of the output to the amplitude of the input in the complexiﬁed equation, is g̃(ω ) = 1 1 = . p(iω ) k − mω 2 + ibω The gain, which is deﬁned as the ratio of the amplitude of the output to the amplitude of the input in the real equation, is g = g(ω ) = 1 1 = � . | p(iω ) | (k − mω 2 )2 + b2 ω 2 (2) The phase lag is φ = φ(ω ) = Arg( p(iω ) = tan−1 ( bω ) k − mω 2 (3) and we also have the time lag = φ/ω. Terminology of Frequency Response We call the gain g(ω ) the amplitude response of the system. The phase lag φ(ω ) is called the phase response of the system. We refer to them collec tively as the frequency response of the system. Notes: 1. Observe that the whole DE scales by the input amplitude B. 2. All that is needed about the input for these formulas to be valid is that it is of the form (constant) × (a sinusoidal function). Here we have used the notation B cos ωt but the amplitude factor in front of the cosine function can take any form, including having the constants depend on the system parameters and/or on ω. (And of course one could equally-well use sin ωt, or any other shift of cosine, for the sinusoid.) This point is very important in the physical applications of this DE and we will return to it again in a later session. 3. Along the same lines as the preceding: we always deﬁne the gain as the the amplitude of the periodic output divided by the amplitude of the periodic input. Later in this session we will see examples where the gain is not just equal to p(i1ω ) (for complex gain) or | p(i1ω )| (for real gain) – stay tuned!