Particle Motion in Electric and Magnetic Fields

2 Particle Motion in Electric and Magnetic Fields Considering E and B to be given, we study the trajectory of particles under the influence of Lorentz force F = q (E + v ∧ B) (2.1) 2.1 Electric Field Alone dv = qE (2.2) dt Orbit depends only on ratio q/m. Uniform E ⇒ uniform acceleration. In one-dimension z, Ez trivial. In multiple dimensions directly analogous to particle moving under influence of gravity. Acceleration gravity g ↔ mq E. Orbits are parabolas. Energy is conserved taking m z qE __ m x Figure 2.1: In a uniform electric field, orbits are parabolic, analogous to gravity. into account potential energy P.E. = qφ electric potential (2.3) [Proof if needed, regardless of E spatial variation, dv dφ .v = −q�φ.v = −q dt dt � � d d 1 2 = − (qφ) mv dt dt 2 m (2.4) (2.5) i.e. 12 mv 2 + qφ = const.] A particle gains kinetic energy qφ when falling through a potential drop-φ. So consider the acceleration and subsequent analysis of particles electrostatically: How much deflection Detecting +φa /2 Screen z φs x φ =0 E z0 d L −φa /2 Electrostatic Analyser Particle Source Figure 2.2: Schematic of electrostatic acceleration and analysis. will there be? After acceleration stage KE = 12 mvx2 = −qφs � vx = −2qφs m . (2.6) Supposing Ea , field of analyser, to be purely ẑ, this velocity is subsequently constant. Within the analyser dvz q q x m = qEa ⇒ vz = Ea t = Ea . (2.7) dt m m vx So � q t2 q 1 x2 z = vz dt = Ea = Ea 2 . (2.8) m 2 m 2 vx Hence height at output of analyser is q 1 L2 q 1 m Ea 2 = Ea L2 m 2 vx m 2 (−2qφs ) 1 Ea 2 1 φa L2 = − L =+ 4 φs d 4 φs zo = (2.9) using Ea = −φa /d. Notice this is independent of q and m! We could see this directly by eliminating the time from our fundamental equations noting d d = v (= v.�) dt d� � with v= 2q (φ − φs ) m or � � � � � 2q E s v=� φ − φs + m q (2.10) if there is initial energy Es . So equation of motion is m q � ⎛� ⎞ � 2q (φ − φs ) d ⎝ 2q (φ − φs ) d ⎠ d� dx x = 2 φ − φs = Ea = −�φ , (2.11) φ − φs m d� m d� d� d� which is independent of q and m. Trajectory of particle in purely electrostatic field depends only on the field (and initial particle kinetic energy/q). If initial energy is zero, can’t deduce anything about q, m. 2.2 Electrostatic Acceleration and Focussing Accelerated charged particle beams are widely used in science and in everyday applications. Examples: X-ray generation from e-beams (Medical, Industrial) Electron microscopes Welding. (e-beam) Surface ion implantation Nuclear activation (ion-beams) Neutron generation Television and (CRT) Monitors For applications requiring < ∼ few hundred keV energy electrostatic acceleration is easiest, widest used. Schematically Sample or Target Source of Electrons or Ions Beam φs φt Figure 2.3: Obtaining defined energy from electrostatic acceleration is straightforward in principle. Beam focussing and transport to the target is crucial. Clearly getting the required energy is simple. Ensure the potential difference is right and particles are singly charged: Energy (eV ) ↔ Potential V. More interesting question: How to focus the beam? What do we mean by focussing? (a) Optical Focussing Parallel Rays Object Image Focal Point (b) Particle beam Focussing Lens Figure 2.4: Analogy between optical and particle-beam focussing. What is required of the “Lens”? To focus at a single spot we require the ray (particle path) deviation from a “thin” lens to be systematic. Specifically, all initially parallel rays converge to a point if the lens deviates their direction by θ such that Deviation Angle Distance from axis r θ θ Parallel Rays f Figure 2.5: Requirement for focussing is that the angular deviation of the path should be a linear function of the distance from the axis. r = f tan θ (2.12) and for small angles, θ, r = −f θ. This linear dependence (θ = −r/f )) of the deviation θ, on distance from the axis, r, is the key property. Electrostatic Lens would like to have (e.g.) Ea r (2.13) a but the lens can’t have charged solids in its middle because the beams must pass through so (initially) ρ = 0 ⇒ �.E = 0. Consequently pure Er is impossible (0 = �.E = 1r ∂(rEr )/∂r = Er = 2Ea /a ⇒ Ea = 0). For an axisymmetric lens (∂/∂θ = −0) we must have both Er and Ez . Perhaps the simplest way to arrange appropriate Er is to have an aperture between two Potential Contours E2 E1 Figure 2.6: Potential variation near an aperture between two regions of different electric field gives rise to focussing. regions of unequal electric field. The potential contours “bow out” toward the lower field region: giving Er . Calculating focal length of aperture Radial acceleration. r z 1 2 Figure 2.7: Coordinates near an aperture. dvr q = Er dt m (2.14) So dvr 1 dvr q Er = = dz vz dt m vz (2.15) But 1 ∂ (rEr ) ∂Ez + =0 ∂z r ∂r Near the axis, only the linear part of Er is important i.e. �.E = 0 ⇒ (2.16) � ∂Er �� Er (r, z) � r � ∂r �r=0 So (2.17) � 1 ∂ ∂Er �� � rEr � 2 r ∂r ∂r �r=0 and thus (2.18) � ∂Er �� ∂Ez � 2 + =0 � ∂r r=0 ∂z (2.19) and we may write Er � − 12 r∂Ez /∂z. Then dvr qr ∂Ez =− dz 2mvz ∂z , (2.20) which can be integrated approximately assuming that variations in r and vz can be neglected in lens to get −qr inal δvr = [vr ]finitial = [Ez ]21 (2.21) 2mvz The angular deviation is therefore θ= −δvr +qr = [Ez2 − Ez1 ] vz 2mvz2 (2.22) and the focal length is f = r/θ 2mvz2 4E f= = q (Ez2 − Ez1 ) q (Ez2 − Ez1 ) (2.23) When E1 is an accelerating region and E2 is zero or small the lens is diverging. This means that just depending on an extractor electrode to form an ion beam will give a diverging beam. Need to do more focussing down stream: more electrodes. 2.2.1 Immersion Lens Two tubes at different potential separated by gap In this case the gap region can be thought of as an aperture but with the electric fields E1 , E2 the same (zero) on both sides. Previous effect is zero. However two other effects, neglected previously, give focussing: 1. vz is not constant. 2. r is not constant. Consider an accelerating gap: q(φ2 − φ1 ) < 0. Source Diverging Extraction Electrode Figure 2.8: The extraction electrode alone always gives a diverging beam. φ2 φ1 Region 2 Region 1 Tube Figure 2.9: An Immersion Lens consists of adjacent sections of tube at different potentials. Effect (1) ions are converged in region 1, diverged in region 2. However because of zacceleration, vz is higher in region 2. The diverging action lasts a shorter time. Hence overall converging. Effect (2) The electric field Er is weaker at smaller r. Because of deviation, r is smaller in diverging region. Hence overall converging. For a decelerating gap you can easily convince yourself that both effects are still converging. [Time reversal symmetry requires this.] One can estimate the focal length as 2 1 3 q � f 16 E 2 � � �2 �� ∂φ �� ∂z �� dz (for weak focussing) (2.24) r=0 but numerical calculations give the values in figure 2.10 where φ1 = E/q. Here E is the energy in region 1. Effect (2) above, that the focussing or defocussing deviation is weaker at points closer to the axis, means that it is a general principle that alternating lenses of equal converging and diverging power give a net converging effect. This principle can be considered to be the basis for Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Figure 2.10: Focal length of Electrostatic Immersion Lenses. Dependence on energy per unit charge (φ) in the two regions, from S.Humphries 1986 2.2.2 Alternating Gradient Focussing Idea is to abandon the cylindrically symmetric geometry so as to obtain stronger focussing. Consider an electrostatic configuration with Ez = 0 and Ex = dEx x with dx dEx = const. dx (2.25) Since �.E = 0, we must have dEx dEy dEy + =0⇒ = const dx dx dy ⇒ Ey = − dEx y dx (2.26) This situation arises from a potential � 2 φ= x −y 2 � � 1 dEx 2 dx � (2.27) so equipotentials are hyperbolas x2 − y 2 = const. If qdEx /dx is negative, then this field is converging in the x-direction, but dEy /dy = −dEx /dx, so it is, at the same time, diverging in the y-direction. By using alternating sections of +ve and -ve dEx /dx a net converging focus can be obtained in both the x and y directions. This alternating gradient approach is very important for high energy particle accelerators, but generally magnetic, not electrostatic, fields are used. So we’ll go into it more later. 2.3 Uniform Magnetic field dv = q (v ∧ B) (2.28) dt Take B in ẑ-direction. Never any force in ẑ-dir. ⇒ vz = constant. Perpendicular dynamics are separate. m B z y x v^B v Figure 2.11: Orbit of a particle in a uniform magnetic field. 2.3.1 Brute force solution: q −q vy B v̇y = vx B m m � � � � qB 2 qB 2 = − vx v̈y = − vy m m v̇x = ⇒ v̈x Solution qB vx = v sin t m m qB x = −v cos t + x0 qB m qB vy = v cos t m m qB y=v sin t + y0 qB m (2.29) (2.30) , (2.31) the equation of a circle. Center (x0 , y0 ) and radius (vm/qB) are determined by initial conditions. 2.3.2 ‘Physics’ Solution 1. Magnetic field force does no work on particle because F ⊥ v. Consequently total |v| is constant. 2. Force is thus constant, ⊥ to v. Gives rise to a circular orbit. 3. Centripetal acceleration gives Larmor (or gyro) Radius. v2 r = F orce mass = q vB i.e. r = m mv . qB This radius is called the 4. Frequency of rotation vr = qB ≡ Ω is called the “Cyclotron” frequency (angular fre­ m quency, s−1 , not cycles/sec, Hz). When we add the constant vz we get a helical orbit. Cyclotron frequency Ω = qB/m depends only on particle character q, m and B-strength not v (non relativistically, see aside). Larmor Radius r = mv/qB depends on particle momentum mv. All (non-relativistic) particles with same q/m have same Ω. Different energy particles have different r. This variation can be used to make momentum spectrometers. 2.3.3 Relativistic Aside Relativistic dynamics can be written d p = q ([E+] v ∧ B) dt (2.32) where relativistic momentum is m0 v p = mv = � 2 1 − vc2 . (2.33) Mass m is increased by factor v2 γ = 1− 2 c � �− 1 2 (2.34) relative to rest mass m0 . Since for E = 0 the velocity |v| = const, γ is also constant, and so is m. Therefore dynamics of a particle in a purely magnetic field can be calculated as if it were non-relativistic: m dv/dt = q(v ∧ B), except that the particle has mass greater by factor γ than its rest mass. 2.3.4 Momentum Spectrometers Particles passing vertically through slit take different paths depending on mv/q. By meaUnform B Different Momenta v Slit Detection Plane x Figure 2.12: Different momentum particles strike the detection plane at different positions. suring where a particle hits the detection plane we measure its momentum/q : 2 mv =x qB : mv Bx = q 2 . (2.35) Why make the detection plane a diameter? Because detection position is least sensitive to velocity direction. This is a form of magnetic focussing. Of course we don’t need to make the full 360◦ , so analyser can be reduced in size. (a) v (b) Different Angles Slit Focus Unform B Unform B Different Momenta v Slit Entrance Detection Plane Detector Array Figure 2.13: (a) Focussing is obtained for different input angles by using 180 degrees of orbit. (b) The other half of the orbit is redundant. Even so, it may be inconvenient to produce uniform B of sufficient intensity over sufficiently large area if particle momentum is large. 2.3.5 Historical Day Dream (J.J. Thomson 1897) “Cathode rays”: how to tell their charge and mass? Electrostatic Deflection Tells only their energy/q = E/q and we have no independent way to measure E since the same quantity E/q just equals accelerating potential, which is the thing we measure. Magnetic Deflection The radius of curvature is r= mv qB (2.36) So combination of electrostatic and electromagnetic gives us 1 mv 2 2 q Hence = M1 and 2M1 q = . 2 M2 m mv = M2 q (2.37) (2.38) We can measure the charge/mass ratio. In order to complete the job an independent measure of q (or m) was needed. Millikan (1911-13). [Actually Townsend in J.J. Thomson’s lab had an experiment to measure q which was within ∼ factor 2 correct.] 2.3.6 Practical Spectrometer In fusion research fast ion spectrum is often obtained by simultaneous electrostatic and electromagnetic analysis E parallel to B. This allows determination of E/q and q/m ⇒ velocity of particle [E = 12 mv 2 ]. Thus e.g. deuterons and protons can be distinguished. B y y Particle E x x Figure 2.14: E parallel to B analyser produces parabolic output locus as a function of input velocity. The loci are different for different q/m. However, He4 and D2 have the same of ion orbits. 2.4 q m so one can’t distinguish their spectra on the basis Dynamic Accelerators In addition to the electrostatic accelerators, there are several different types of accelerators based on time-varying fields. With the exception of the Betatron, these are all based on the general principle of arranging for a resonance between the particle and the oscillating fields such that energy is continually given to the particle. Simple example 1+ 1 1- 2+ 2 2- 3+ 3- 3 Figure 2.15: Sequence of dynamically varying electrode potentials produces continuous ac­ celeration. Values at 3 times are indicated. Particle is accelerated through sequence of electrodes 3 at times (1) (2) (3). The potential of electrode is raised from negative to +ve while particle is inside electrode. So at each gap it sees an accelerating Ez . Can be thought of as a successive moving potential hill: “Wave” of potential propagates at same speed as particle so it is continuously accelerated. Historically earliest widespread accelerator based on this principle was the cyclotron. φ z Figure 2.16: Oscillating potentials give rise to a propagating wave. - + Electric Poles Magnetic Poles Plan Orbit Elevation B Figure 2.17: Schematic of a Cyclotron accelerator. 2.4.1 Cyclotron Take advantage of the orbit frequency in a uniform B-field Ω = qB . Apply oscillating m potential to electric poles, at this frequency. Each time particle crosses the gap (twice/turn) it sees an accelerating electric field. Resonant frequency f= Ω qB = = 1.52 × 107 B 2π m2π Hz (2.39) 15.2 MHz/T for protons. If magnet radius is R particle leaves accelerator when its Larmor radius is equal to R mv 1 1 q2 2 2 = R ⇒ mv 2 = B R (2.40) qB 2 2m If iron is used for magnetic pole pieces then B < ∼ 2T (where it saturates). Hence larger accelerator is required for higher energy E ∝ R2 . [But stored energy in magnet ∝ R2 → R3 ]. 2.4.2 Limitations of Cyclotron Acceleration: Relativity 1 Mass increase ∝ (1 − v 2 /c2 )− 2 breaks resonance, restricting maximum energy to ∼25MeV (protons). Improvement: sweep oscillator frequency (downward). “Synchrocyclotron” al­ lowed energy up to ∼500MeV but reduced flux. Alternatively: Increase B with radius. Leads to orbit divergence parallel to B. Compensate with azimuthally varying field for focussing AVF-cyclotron. Advantage continuous beam. 2.4.3 Synchrotron Vary both frequency and field in time to keep beam in resonance at constant radius. High energy physics (to 800 GeV). 2.4.4 Linear Accelerators Avoid limitations of electron synchrotron radiation. Come in 2 main types. (1) Induction (2) RF (linacs) with different pros and cons. (RF for highest energy electrons). Electron acceleration: v = c different problems from ion. 2.5 Magnetic Quadrupole Focussing (Alternating Gra­ dient) Magnetic focussing is preferred at high particle energy. Why? Its force is stronger. Magnetic force on a relativistic particle qcB. Electric force on a relativistic particle qE. E.g. B = 2T ⇒ cB = 6 × 108 same force as an electric field of magnitude 6 × 108 V /m = 0.6MV/mm! However magnetic force is perpendicular to B so an axisymmetric lens would ˆ θ . However this would require a current right like to have purely azimuthal B field B = θB B v v^B Figure 2.18: Impossible ideal for magnetic focussing: purely azimuthal magnetic field. where the beam is: � B.d� = µo I. (2.41) Axisymmetric magnetic lens is impossible. However we can focus in one cartesian direction (x, y) at a time. Then use the fact that successive combined focus-defocus has a net focus. 2.5.1 Preliminary Mathematics ∂ Consider ∂z = 0 purely transverse field (approx) Bx , By . This can be represented by B = � ∧ A with A = ẑA so � ∧ A = � ∧ (ẑA) = −ẑ ∧ �A (since �ẑ = 0). In the vacuum region j = 0 (no current) so ˆ 0 = � ∧ B = � ∧ (−ẑ ∧ �A) = −ẑ�2 A + (z.�) �A (2.42) � �� � =0 i.e. �2 A = 0. A satisfies Laplace’s equation. Notice then that solutions of electrostatic problems, �2 φ = 0 are also solutions of (2-d) vacuum magnetostatic problems. The same solution techniques work. 2.5.2 Multipole Expansion Potential can be expanded about some point in space in a kind of Taylor expansion. Choose origin at point of expansion and use coordinates (r, θ), x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ. �2 A = 1 ∂ ∂A 1 ∂2A r + 2 2 =0 r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ (2.43) Look for solutions in the form A = u(r).w(θ). These require d2 w = −const. × w dθ2 (2.44) and d du r = const. × u. dr dr Hence w solutions are sines and cosines r w = cos nθ or sin nθ (2.45) (2.46) where n2 is the constant in the previous equation and n integral to satisfy periodicity. Correspondingly u = rn or ln r , r−n (2.47) These solutions are called “cylindrical harmonics” or (cylindrical) multipoles: 1 rn cos nθ rn sin nθ ln r r−n cos nθ r−n sin nθ (2.48) If our point of expansion has no source at it (no current) then the right-hand column is ruled out because no singularity at r = 0 is permitted. The remaining multipoles are 1 r cos θ(= x) r2 cos 2θ = r2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = x2 − y 2 Higher orders constant irrelevant to a potential uniform field, �A ∝ x̂ non-uniform field neglected. The second order solution, x2 − y 2 is called a “quadrupole” field (although this is something of a misnomer). [Similarly r3 cos 3θ → “hexapole”, r4 cos θ “octupole”.] We already dealt with this potential in the electric case. � � �A = � x2 − y 2 = 2xx̂ − 2yŷ . (2.49) So − ẑ ∧ �A = −2xŷ − 2yx̂ (2.50) Force on longitudinally moving charge: F = qv ∧ B = qv ∧ (� ∧ A) = qv ∧ (ẑ ∧ �A) = −q (v.ẑ) �A ≡ −qvz �A (2.51) (2.52) Magnetic quadrupole force is identical to electric ‘quadrupole’ force replacing φ ↔ Avz (2.53) Consequently focussing in x-direction ⇒ defocussing in y-direction but alternating gradients give net focussing. This is basis of all “strong focussing”. 2.6 Force on distributed current density We have regarded the Lorentz force law F = q (E + v ∧ B) (2.54) as fundamental. However forces are generally measured in engineering systems via the in­ teraction of wires or conducting bars with B-fields. Historically, of course, electricity and magnetism were based on these measurements. A current (I) is a flow of charge: Coulombs/s ≡ Amp. A current density j is a flow of charge per unit area A/m2 . The charge is carried by particles: � j= ni vi qi (2.55) species i Hence total force on current carriers per unit volume is F= � ni qi (vi ∧ B) = j ∧ B (2.56) i Also, for a fine wire carrying current I, if its area is Ω, the current density averaged across the section is I j= (2.57) Ω Volume per unit length is Ω. And the force/unit length = j ∧ B.Ω = I × B perpendicular to the wire. 2.6.1 Forces on dipoles We saw that the field of a localized current distribution, far from the currents, could be approximated as a dipole. Similarly the forces on a localized current by an external magnetic field that varies slowly in the region of current can be expressed in terms of magnetic dipole. [Same is true in electrostatics with an electric dipole]. Total force F= � j ∧ Bd3 x� (2.58) where B is an external field that is slowly varying and so can be approximated as B (x� ) = B0 + (x� .�) B (2.59) where the tensor �B (∂Bj /∂xi ) is simply a constant (matrix). Hence F = � j ∧ Bo + j ∧ (x� .�B) d3 x� �� = � jd3 x� ∧ Bo + � j ∧ (x� .�B) d3 x� (2.60) The first term integral is zero and the second is transformed by our previous identity, which can be written as x∧ � � 3 � (x ∧ j) d x = 2x. � � 3 � jx d x = −2x. for any x. Use the quantity �B for x (i.e. xi ↔ ∂ B) ∂xi j � x� jd3 x� (2.61) giving � 1� (x� ∧ j) d3 x ∧ �B = m ∧ �B = j (x� .�) Bd3 x 2 (2.62) This tensor identity is then contracted by an ‘internal’ cross-product [�ijk Tjk ] to give the vector identity � (m ∧ �) ∧ B = j ∧ [(x� .�) B] d3 x (2.63) Thus F = (m ∧ �) ∧ B = � (m.B) − m (�.B) (2.64) (remember the � operates only on B not m). This is the force on a dipole: F = � (m.B) . (2.65) Total Torque (Moment of force) is M = = � x� ∧ (j ∧ B) d3 x� (2.66) � j (x� .B) − B (x� .j) d3 x� (2.67) B here is (to lowest order) independent of x� : B0 so second term is zero since � x� .jd3 x� = � 1� � �2 � �. |x | j − |x� |2 �.j d3 x� = 0. 2 � (2.68) The first term is of the standard form of our identity. M = B. � � 1 x jd x = − B ∧ (x� ∧ j) d3 x� 2 � 3 � M=m∧B (2.69) Moment on a dipole. (2.70) y x dy z I dx Figure 2.19: Elementary circuit for calculating magnetic force. 2.6.2 Force on an Elementary Magnetic Moment Circuit Consider a plane rectangular circuit carrying current I having elementary area dxdy = dA. Regard this as a vector pointing in the z direction dA. The force on this current in a field B(r) is F such that ∂Bz ∂x ∂Bz = −Idx [Bz (y + dy) − Bz (y)] = Idydx ∂y = −Idx [By (y + dy) − By (y)] − Idy [Bx (x + dx) − Bx (x)] � � ∂Bx ∂By ∂Bz = −Idxdy + = Idydx ∂x ∂y ∂z Fx = Idy [Bz (x + dx) − Bz (x)] = Idydx (2.71) Fy (2.72) Fz (2.73) (using �.B = 0). Hence, summarizing: F = Idydx�Bz . Now define m = IdA = Idydxẑ and take it constant. Then clearly the force can be written F = � (B.m) or strictly (�B).m. (2.74) N B m M S Figure 2.20: Moment on a bar magnet in a uniform field. ∇ |B| Net Force: S m N B N m S Figure 2.21: A magnetic moment in the form of a bar magnet is attracted or repelled toward the stronger field region, depending on its orientation. 2.6.3 Example Small bar magnet: archetype of dipole. In uniform B feels just a torque aligning it with B. In a uniform field, no net force. Non-uniform field: If magnet takes its natural resting direction, m parallel to B, force is F = m�|B| (2.75) A bar magnet is attracted to high field. Alternatively if m parallel to minus B the magnet points other way F = −m�|B| repelled from high |B|. (2.76) Same would be true for an elementary circuit dipole. It is attracted/repelled according to whether it acts to increase or decrease B locally. A charged particle moving in its Larmor orbit is always diamagnetic: repelled from high |B|. 2.6.4 Intuition There is something slightly non-intuitive about the “natural” behavior of an elementary wire circuit and a particle orbit considered as similar to this elementary circuit. Their currents flow in opposite directions when the wire is in its stable orientation. The reason is that the strength of the wire sustains it against the outward magnetic expansion force, while the particle needs an inward force to cause the centripetal acceleration. ∇ |B| Net Force: Paramagnetic Attracted B Diamagnetic Repelled Figure 2.22: Elementary circuit acting as a dipole experiences a force in a non-uniform magnetic field. I Stable Orientation j^B outwards. Wire Loop To balance acceleration j^B inwards. vq Orbiting Particle Figure 2.23: Difference between a wire loop and a particle orbit in their “natural” orientation. 2.6.5 Angular Momentum If the local current is made up of particles having a constant ratio of charge to mass: q/M say (Notational accident m is magnetic moment). Then the angular momentum is L = � 1 � qi xi ∧ vi . So i Mi xi ∧ v and magnetic moment is m = 2 q m= L. “Classical” (2.77) 2M This would also be true for a continuous body with constant (charge density)/(mass density) (ρ/ρm ). Elementary particles, e.g. electrons etc., have ‘spin’ with moments m, L. However they do not obey the above equation. Instead q m=g L (2.78) 2M with the Landé g-factor (� 2 for electrons). This is attributed to quantum and relativistic effects. However the “classical” value might not occur if ρ/ρm were not constant. So we should not be surprised that g is not exactly 1 for particles’ spin. 2.6.6 Precession of a Magnetic Dipole (formed from charged par­ ticle) The result of a torque m ∧ B is a change in angular momentum. Since m = gLq/2M we have dL q =m∧B=g (L ∧ B)) (2.79) dt 2M B m^B m^B L m Figure 2.24: Precession of an angular momentum L and aligned magnetic moment m about the magnetic field. This is the equation of a circle around B. [Compare with orbit equation dv = mq v ∧ B]. The dt direction of L precesses like a tilted ‘top’ around direction of B with a frequency ω=g qB 2M (2.80) For an electron (g = 2) this is equal to the cyclotron frequency. For protons g = 2 × 2.79 [Written like this because spin is 12 ]. For neutrons g = 2 × (−1.93). Precession frequency is thus f= ωelectron = (28GHz) × (B/Tesla) 2π ωproton = (43MHz) × (B/Tesla) 2π (2.81) (2.82) This is the (classical) basis of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance but of course that really needs QM.