Fire Service Ethics Chapter 4 The Philosophy of Ethics

54 55 56 Chapter 4 The Philosophy of Ethics What is truth? Ethical theories have distractors and supporters. For an ethical theory to be used it should meet two general standards: 1. Valid 2. Applicable Ethical theory should accomplish the following and must be consistent and complete: 1. For a series of ethical and moral principles 2. Show how those principles are justified 3. Guide people to a life of ethical and moral excellence Consistency: demonstrates by lack of contradiction or incompatibility between the principles of the statement To be complete theory must be comprehensive, apply to all moral and ethical situations without dependency on another theory Ethical theories may be challenged by one of the three methods: 1. It can be invalid or mistaken in 2. It can be incomplete 3. It can be inconsistent Branches of ethics: 1. METAETHICS: History of various ethical philosophies and their origins. Meanings of concepts, words, and values associated with ethics. Universal ethical principles. 2. DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS: compare and contrast the various beliefs and moral values of different groups of people 3. APPLIED ETHIC: investigate the moral and ethical implications of a particular action such as assisted suicide 4. NORMATIVE ETHICS: seek to determine the proper way to live life through the development of an ethical code Metaethics: Two points of view regarding the source of Morality 1. OBJECTIVISM: Moral values in universal, and they exist outside human conventions. Moral principles are fixed and not subject to change in interpretation. More principles apply to all rational creatures, regardless of culture or the time in which they live.  Plato: argued, moral truth, like mathematics was an abstract entity that exists in a spite like realm.  Aquinas: asserted that universal moral truth came from the will of God - Known as DIVINE COMMAND THEORY: interpretation of absolute objectivism is that god must exist.  Absolute objectivism: proponents argue that there are universal principles of good that exist as a condition of nature. 2. SUBJECTIVISIM: humanity develops, moral values out of practical necessity or strictly by social convention. Do not deny the existence of moral truth only in universal nature. Two versions of subjectivism: - INDIVIDUAL RELATIVISM: holds that moral values are created by individuals, relative to their place, time, and situation - CULTURAL RELATIVISIM: maintains that morality is based on a cultures or social groups expectations.  Divine subjectivism: suggest God exist, however, he has no expectations of behavior. God does not punish a reward behavior based on compliance. Human must exercise free will, and the “goodness “of an action is determined by intent. - Most often associated with deism as practiced by Voltaire, Paine, and Franklin  Cultural subjectivism God here may not exist, and his existence is irrelevant to morality. - Most common critique: if God exist, how can he be morally irrelevant? - How does a person count for the individual act of morality to society standards that  58 59 60 61 change societies views?  Absolute subjectivism: no moral authority beyond humanity. No moral truth beyond that held in the individual’s conscience. - Most common critique: makes morality and ethics essentially irrelevant. If a thing is good or bad based on the intent of the individual, then arguably all things are good. - Would argue that the morality of government executioners takes a life and entirely dependent on how the executioner views the act. Descriptive Ethics: Form of scientific research. It seeks to understand and catalogue the attitudes of individuals or a group of individuals. Can uncover the beliefs and values that are used to determine the relative “rightness “or “good “in a particular action. Applied ethics seeks to identify or morally correct path as applied to a specific circumstance. Three commonly identified disciplines of applied ethics include:  compare the application of ethical philosophies to a particular problem. 1. DESCISION ETHICS: normative theories are applied to the decision-making process, focuses on personal decisions as they relate to personal values and attitudes. 2. PREOFESSIONAL ETHICS: pre-existing codes of ethics specific to occupational activities. Occupational areas, such as medical, legal, business, and research ethics. 3. MACRO ETHICS: focuses on global issues, such as the Geopolitical ramifications of wealth, distribution, technology, international business practices, and environmental issues. Normative ethics: investigates, questions or rising from the consideration of how an individual should morally act. It differs from applied ethics and that it seeks to identified general standards of belief based on the ethical philosophy.  Essentially, an exercise aimed at determining the guidelines by which we should live our lives, to some extent, by which we judge the moral contact of others, life choices. Approaches to normative ethics theories: 1. VIRTUE ETHICS: rooted within compliance to a particular virtue. Represents one of the earliest forms of ethical thought in western civilization. 2. CONSEQUENTIALISM: action should be judged by their outcome. 3. DEONTOLOGY(Duty): action should be based on a code of conduct. Virtue Theory: Development of good habits of character, such as personal integrity. 1. Divided into two categories: - MORAL VIRTUES: based on character and acquired through learning, includes concepts, such as justice, prudence, restraint, integrity, loyalty, and sincerity. - INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES: inherit in an individual’s nature. You were born with them or not. Includes wisdom, empirical knowledge, reason, and skills in the arts. 2. EUDEMONISM: good habits that are required through moral education and are formed primarily in youth. Further argue that one of the functions of virtue is the regulation of an emotions and their self-control. An exercise and moderation and that extreme in behaviors are at their heart vices. Example honesty is a virtue. - Principal is that an act in and of itself does not reflect virtue, if done for selfish reasons. Virtues require more than cognition, must be a part of a person’s character or pursued for their own value. AGENT BASED THEORIES: It in the idea that each of us has a internal sense of what is right and wrong. Common sense intuition tells that person which traits are good and admirable, and what action would be correct in any given situation. CARE ETHICS: Third commonly described form of virtue ethics. Based on the importance of being positive force within a social group. Various degrees of independence and one another independence. Primary principal is that of interdependence.  Hobbes, Rawls, and Locke: contribute to the welfare of Society.  Advocates include Gilligan and Toronto, female book authors. Care ethics generally recognize four elements that constitute care morality 1. Attentiveness: acknowledgment that those needs are relevant 2. Responsibility: benefit from membership and social group, obligation to contribute to the welfare of the group 3. Competence: not enough to acknowledge or accept responsibility for it without adequately, addressing the problem causing the need 4. Responsiveness: recognition of vulnerability, and that most cultures groups like social equity. 62 66 Consequentialism: Lives we routinely find ourselves, judging moral responsibility through the consequences of our actions. All three of these theories support the notion that consequences dictate the rightness of an action. 3 distinct forms of consequentialism: 1. UTILITARIANISM: action deemed right if it is most favorable to everyone concerned  Bentham and Mill.  Ethics of an action can most effectively be judged by its consequences. Greatest good for the greatest number of people should be deemed as the greatest ethical good.  RULE OF UTILITY: good is that which brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. (Bentham)  Distinguished, the concept of utilitarianism from hedonism. “rising tide lifts all boats “(Mill)  An element principle is happiness is intrinsically valuable, and that all other values should be judged according to their ability to promote happiness or conversely, to eliminate unhappiness. 2. ETHICAL EGOISM: morally right if the consequences are favorable to the person performing an act  Opposite of utilitarianism.  Individuals are to promote self-interest above all other value.  NORMATIVE EGOISM: in her own self-interest. Tell her to take care of oneself places, the burden of care on others, which is also an inherited unethical.  PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM: universal truth “that individuals will always act out of self-interest “. Any act of altruism is an emotional response, contra to human nature.  RATIONAL EGOISM: became prominent in the early part of the industrial revolution. - Rands: enlightened self-interest, which rejects what she called the “Judeo-Christian Heritage of sacrificial, ethics”. Rand placed someone’s interest above your own, was contrary to rational thought and only spring from emotion of guilt.  CONDITIONAL EGOSIM: acting in self-interest is acceptable only if it leads tomorrow outcomes. For example, an act is acceptable if it produces a betterment to society and it is unacceptable if it causes harm. - Smith: “it is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the Baker that was expected our dinner, but from the regard to their own interest” - The problem is, it depends on a superior moral goal or the attainment of the general good through self-interest, then what defines the public good Egoism leads to chaos if practice by the majority of people within a society. Egoism is problematic as an ethical theory, as it cannot be universally applied. 3. ETHICAL ALTRUISM: action is right if the consequences are favorable to everyone, except the person performing the act. Consequential doctrine that each of us has a more obligation to help serve and benefit others. Self-interest is less important than the welfare of others. Action is morally right only if it results are favorable to all parties concerned except the individual.  Similar to care ethics but different as it intimidates in necessity for self-sacrifice, not necessarily addressed and care ethics.  DUAL CONSEQUENTIALISM: to argue that the rightness of consequences can be measure, both morally and objectively.  PROXIMITY: relative value of a consequence, either in time or scale.  RULE CONSEQUENTIALISM: an action is ethically, correct only if it comprises with rules that would necessarily have the best intense consequences as opposed to following another rule or no rule in all. (Mill later modified by Brant) Deontology: Based on the belief that as human beings, we have clear obligations to society. Sometimes call Kantisanism. Kant: his idea that we are bounded by a universe imperative to respect the humanity of other people. 1. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE: action that is required out of duty, whether it benefits the actor or not. “First, we should always treat people with dignity, never use them as near instruments. Second, we should act in a way consistent with how we would want all people to act in the same circumstance” 2. PLUERALISTIC DEONTOLOGY: (ROSS) categorical imperative. There were more than two. Individuals had the duty to keep promises, duty, to pursue justice, a duty to improve that conditions of others, a duty to self-improve, and most important a duty not to injure others. 3. (Locke) very laws of nature gave people the rights of humanity. It is 68 71 Natural rights theory: unethical to harm anyone’s life, health, liberty or possessions. Endowed by God as a condition of birth. Obligation is present, regardless of the desirable of the expected outcome over actions. Example would be a defense attorney. 4. DIVINE COMMAND THEORY: prominent within normative ethics, particularly deontology.  Oakham and Descartes Believe that because morality springs from God’s will, humans had a moral duty to obey that will.  Contractarian Ethics: based on the concept that morality rises from social norms and expectations. Rules of behavior and necessary to maintain social board agree to “social contract “to abide by those rules. Focuses almost exclusively and human relationships. - Distinction between contract theory and utilitarian is it is how right and wrong or judged. We both focus on actions that contribute to the common good, contract theory asserts the rightness is based on compliance with agreed on rules that are intended to promote a common good. Moral relativism as a normative ethic: Whether moral truth is universe. Relativism is the only rational approach to understanding the morality of human behavior. Virtue ethics and deontology are both rooted in the assumption that right and wrong are tangible and unmailable concepts MORAL RELATIVISIM: (concept that right and wrong or predicted on context). Rooted in the subjectivist relief that there are no universal moral truth, and that we can only understand the actions of an individual or culture in light of the circumstances that exist at the time.  Relativists recognize right and wrong exist, however, do not accept the principle of universal concepts of right and wrong.  According to the objectivist theory: moral truth is universal and unchanging, immoral today, would in fact, always be immoral. For example, George Washington’s holding slaves was an immoral act. - In defensive Washington, it is an exercise and cultural relativism CULTURAL RELATIVISM: (belief that actions are moral or immoral relative to the beliefs and tradition of the culture)  Failure to recognize the validity of another culture, moral standards, almost necessarily invites, condemnation and eventual aggression  Result of a postmodern breakdown in cultural institutions  Suggest that increased cynicism towards government, religious dogma, judicial institutions, and cultural traditions, have essentially forced individuals to develop their own sense of writing and wrong. Normative ethics in the Fire Service:  Military, law, and legal professions are rooted in deontology. They each share a common focus on adhering to rules and procedures.  The utilitarian approach to medical ethics can also be exemplified in the application of triage.  Virtue ethics: general business ethics, and the ethical code of Boy Scouts are examples. - The operating a dangerous environment, virtues, such as bravery, trustworthiness, and loyalty are greatly valued in our profession. 1. Benefice Ethics (care ethics): And example is at the core of firefighters we are an emergency response organization that exists to provide service to those in need.  Ethical system applied to the Fire Service, must at least and part be rooted in consequential ethics.  Fundamental responsibilities of a firefighter are firmly rooted in Kantian ethics  Utilitarian principles associated with medical ethics, of course apply as well to firefighters  Deontology: for example, fire, inspectors enforce codes and regulations. Arson investigators, actively participate in the justice process.  Virtue ethics, utilitarianism and deontology are all relevant to firefighters -the challenges, identify prioritizing the sometimes competing at the goal requirements. The question is not which philosophic approach to ethics is the best, but rather how much of which should be applied in when.