Managing and Leading Today's Police: Challenges and Opportunities Fourth Edition

Managing and leading today's police: Challenges and opportunities fourth edition Chapter 1 Concept of organization ❖​ Organization ★​ A consciously coordinated social entity, with a relatively identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals ❖​ Social entity ★​ Organizations are composed of people who interact with one another and with people outside the organization ❖​ Relatively identifiable boundary ★​ Refers to the organization's goals and the public served Police leadership ❖​ Leadership is getting things done through other people ❖​ Leaders ensure tasks are accomplished and goals are reached ❖​ Managers generally are lieutenants and captains responsible for units within a police department ❖​ Administrators guide and lead the department Early policing Efforts ★​ Roman Empire controlled by Roman army ★​ Modern policing began in England ★​ Frankpledge system present in medieval England ★​ King issued the leges Henrici which identified offense against the crown ★​ Magna carta (1215) guaranteed people certain civil and political rights. Early policing in England ❖​ Night watches involved citizens who patrolled streets ❖​ Henry fielding employed (thief takers” who investigated crimes and brought criminal to justice ❖​ Sir robert peel introduced the Act for improving the police in and near the metropolis ❖​ Peel's Act created the first modern police department Early policing in America ★​ Large cities in new york, Boston< and philadelphia created watchman systems ★​ Arly police departments were inefficient and rife with corruption ★​ Leadership and management were present only when is was advantageous to the dominant politicians Professional policing ❖​ Efforts to professionalize American policing crystalized in the 1950s ❖​ Reform police chiefs used a variety of methods to wrestle control from the corrupt politicians ❖​ By the 1950s, American policing could be characterized as bureaucratic policing. ❖​ Police chiefs attempted to minimize contact thay officers had with citizens Community relations policing ❖​ The 1960s was a period of great unrest in the country ❖​ Many police departments created police-community relations units to help with the disorder ❖​ Congress passed the Omnibus crime control and safe streets Act 1968 ❖​ Congress funded police-community relations and training programs Community policing ❖​ Community policing attributes ★​ 1. Police must work to improve community relationships ★​ 2. Problem solving ❖​ A problem is an event, occurrence, or location that generates crime or disorder ❖​ Problem solving is where causes or instigators of crime and disorder and addressed and eliminated Intelligence-Led policing ❖​ Intelligence-led policing (ILP) become prevalent after the 9/11 attacks ❖​ A variety of sources of information are used when collecting intelligence ❖​ Once intelligence information is collected, it must be analyzed Predictive policing ❖​ A process where mathematical models or algorithms are combined with geospatial information to predict future crime and disorder ❖​ Private corporations and business have been using “big data” for years ❖​ Richmond,virginia,police department used predictive policing to reduce random gunfire ❖​ Still in its infancy ❖​ Expected to become more sophisticated Mission statements ❖​ A statement of a department s commitment to the community ❖​ Provide information about how the department will accomplish goals ❖​ Help police executives better manage their departments Strategic plans ❖​ A document that details specific goals that a police departments is committed to accomplish ❖​ Includes specific strategies the department deploys to accomplish goals ❖​ May include benchmarks such as reducing burglaries by 10 percents ❖​ Plan represents a roadmap for police activities Opportunities for American policing ❖​ Police body-worn cameras ❖​ Enhanced technology ❖​ Police research and evidence-based policing Chapter 2: the dynamics of police organization structure and theories Scientific Management ❖​ Fredrick Taylor is considered the “father of scientific Management”. ❖​ Taylor sought to refine management techniques by studying how workers might become more complete extensions of matches. ❖​ Taylors work also spawned the idea of functional supervision. Bureaucratic management ★​ Police organization is the United states are bureaucracies ★​ Administration of most police organizations based on traditional,pyramidal, quasi military organization structure ★​ Bureaucratic model with chain of command especially prevalent in large police organizations POSDCORB ❖​ Acronym POSDCORB for planning,organizing,staffing,directing,coordinating,reporting, and budgeting ❖​ Key administrative activities that occupy the majority of a managers time ❖​ Planning ❖​ Organizing ❖​ Staffing ❖​ Directing ❖​ Coordinating ❖​ Reporting ❖​ Budgeting Max Weber ★​ Max weber identified attributes of successful organization ★​ Weber studied the catholic church and prussian army ★​ Identified principles resulted in a measure of managerial effectiveness Hierarchy of Authority or chain of command ❖​ Chain of command is a Hierarchy of Authority ❖​ Officers at higher ranks have more authority to make decisions and issues commands ❖​ Chain of command provides consistency ❖​ Excessive layering results in too many levels of rank Span of control ❖​ Spain of control to the number of officers or civilian employees that a superior officer can effectively supervise ❖​ Span of control factors ★​ Capacity of supervisor and those persons supervised ★​ Type of work performed ★​ Complexity of the work ★​ Geographic area ★​ Time needed to perform the tasks ★​ Type of persons served Specialization ❖​ Specialization refers to grouping similar tasks into specialized units to facilitate productivity ❖​ Police departments organize tasks or activities by function ❖​ Specialization by geography refers to organizing tasks by different areas ❖​ Specialization by time refers to organizing work by shifts Delegation of Authority ★​ Delegation of authority involves assignment of tasks and responsibilities to subordinate managers and supervisors ★​ Holds subordinates accountable ★​ People being held accountable must have commensurate authority Unity of command ❖​ Unity of command refers to placing one officer in command or in control of every situation and officer ❖​ Applies to administrators and managers ❖​ Everyone in chain of command is aware of priorities and actions ❖​ Ensures that conflicting orders not issued Policies, Procedures, and Rules and Regulations ★​ Policies: serve as guides to thinking rather than action ★​ Procedures: more detailed that policies ★​ Rules and regulations: specific guidelines that leaves or no latitude for individual discretion Hawthorne Experiments ❖​ Hawthorne experiments relate to human relations theory ❖​ Western Electric company conducted studies at Hawthores facilities in chicago ❖​ Theory x bad y is good ❖​ Attempt to determine highest levels of worker productivity ❖​ Productivity increased when wor breaks and illumination increased Human relations Organizational theory ●​ Theory X ★​ Views employees negatively ★​ Sees the need for structured organizations ★​ average employee dislikes ●​ Theory Y ★​ Average employee does not inherently dislike work ★​ Takes a more humanistic view toward employees ★​ People will exercise self-control and are self-directed Systems theory ❖​ Organizations are similar to living organisms. ❖​ Systems approach emphasizes the interdependencies and interrelationship of each and every part to the whole. ❖​ A system is composed of elements or subsystems that are related and dependent ❖​ Upon one another Police organizational design ❖​ Major concerns: ★​ Identifying what jobs need to be done ★​ Determining how to group the jobs ★​ Forming levels of authority ★​ Equalizing responsibility Factors that influence organization ❖​ Informal organization ❖​ Police culture ❖​ Employee organization and unions ❖​ Department inertia Contemporary organization strategies and innovations ★​ Community policing ★​ Matrix structure ★​ Special operations units Chapter 4: Communication,negotiation,and conflict resolution Communication process ❖​ Communications channel ❖​ Formal communications ❖​ Informal communications ❖​ Communication selects a medium ❖​ Decoding the message ❖​ Full internalization through feedback Formal Communication ❖​ Official transmissions of information in the organization ❖​ Generally follow the police departments chain of command or organizational chart ❖​ Generally written in letters,memoranda,e-mails,or orders Informal Communication ❖​ Usually oral ❖​ Convey official and unofficial information ❖​ Allow information to flow more freely and rapidly ❖​ Quasi-formal exchanges of information between coworkers ❖​ Rumors or the grapevine Barriers to Effective Communication ❖​ Perceptual problems ★​ Status ★​ Stereotyping value judgments ★​ Semantic problems ❖​ Physical Barriers Texting and Email ❖​ Common form of communication ❖​ Barrier to effective communication,especially while driving ❖​ Radio is a safer alternative while driving ❖​ Select proper medium when communication Media Relations ❖​ Media relations ★​ Information provided to news media ★​ Relationship between the police department and news media ❖​ Public information officer(PIO) ★​ Person who knows to perform public speaking ★​ Knows that kinds and how much information to divulge to media outlets Art of negotiation ❖​ pre-Negotiation stage ❖​ Personal Factors Affecting Negotiations ❖​ Guidelines for Conducting Negotiations ❖​ Negotiation by police Managers and supervisors Coping with conflict ❖​ Importance of communication and negotiation skills with conflicts ❖​ Nature of organizational conflict ★​ Two or more people disagree over issues of organizational substance and experience some emotional antagonism with one another ❖​ Levels of conflict ★​ Intrapersonal ★​ Interpersonal ★​ Intergroup ★​ Interorganizational Sources of conflict: Organizational sources ❖​ Competition over resources ❖​ Ambiguity over authority ❖​ Organizational reward systems ❖​ Power differential Sources of conflict: Interpersonal sources ❖​ Interpersonal communication ❖​ Faulty attributes ❖​ Distrust ❖​ Grudges ❖​ Personal characteristics Managers’ and supervisors’ roles in conflict resolution ❖​ Intervention involves cooperativeness and assertiveness ❖​ Strategies ★​ Avoidance ★​ Accommodation ★​ Competition ★​ Compromise ★​ Collaboration Chapter 5: Human resource management: the foundation for an effective police department Human Resource systems ❖​ Human Resource managements ★​ Attract an effective workforce to the organization, develop the workforce to its potential, and maintain it over time ❖​ Laws and procedures that dictate how police Human Resource systems operate ❖​ Standards vary by jurisdiction ❖​ Conflict may arise between the police department and the Human Resource department Affirmative Action ❖​ Equal employment opportunity(EEO) laws ★​ Ensure employers do not discriminate against different protected classes of people ❖​ Title VII of the 1964 Civil rights Act ❖​ Griggs v. Duke power Co. (1971) ★​ U.S. supreme Court ruled unintentional discrimination as well as international discrimination was illegal Recruitment ❖​ Recruitment defined ★​ Attracting a sufficient pool of qualified applicants from which to Select the neede number of new officers ❖​ Police department must pursue all avenues to recruit police officers ❖​ Background checks for applicants Minimum standards for police hiring (1 of 2) ❖​ Residency requirements ❖​ Vision requirement ❖​ Education requirements ❖​ Drug use standards ❖​ Driving standards Training ❖​ Academy or basic training ❖​ State certification ★​ Peace officers standards and training(POST) governance ❖​ Field training officer program ❖​ Roll-call training ❖​ In-service training Performance Appraisal ❖​ Formalized feedback to employees ❖​ Recruitment and selection ❖​ Training ❖​ Field training officer evaluation ❖​ Horizontal job changes ❖​ Promotions ❖​ Compensation management ❖​ Discipline Defining rating criteria ❖​ Job is studied an attempt to identify what should be measured by the performance appraisal system ❖​ Performance standards bust be established Community policing and performance Appraisal ❖​ Performance objectives provide substantial guidance to officers with community policing ❖​ Community policy has not been integrated into police performance appraisals on a wide scale ❖​ Department must endeavor to include community policing in performance appraisals Improving rater performance ❖​ Rater errors ❖​ Halo effect ❖​ Recency problem ❖​ Rater bias ❖​ Constant error problem ❖​ Unclear standards Sexual Harassment ❖​ Prohibited by Title VII of the 1964 Civil right Act ❖​ Quid pro quo sexual harassment ★​ Tangible economic detriment as a result of refusal to succumb to sexual advances ❖​ Hostile work environment ★​ Unwelcome sexual conduct unreasonably interfering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating environment ❖​ Avoidance by issuing policies, training officers, first-line supervision Components in promotion processes ❖​ Written promotional tests ❖​ Performance appraisals ❖​ Oral interview board ❖​ Situational texts Risk management ❖​ Workers compensations ❖​ Law enforcement liability ❖​ Police auto liability -​ Risk management is the continuing process to identify, analyze, evaluate, and treat loss exposures and monitor risk control and financial resources to mitigate the adverse effects of loss. Chapter 6 officer right,discipline, and liability: A legal and policy-Driven Framework Peace officers bill of rights (POBR) ❖​ Developed in 1990s ❖​ Police officers began insisting on greater procedural safeguards ❖​ Protect against perceived arbitrary infringement of rights ❖​ Officers not subjected to coercive interrogations or questioning Police officers constitutional rights(1 of 2) ❖​ Freedom of speech ❖​ Searches and seizures (including privacy) ❖​ Self-incrimination ❖​ Religious practices ❖​ Sexual misconduct Police officers constitutional rights(2 of 2) ❖​ Residency requirements ❖​ Moonlighting ❖​ Misuse of firearms ❖​ Alcohol and drug testing in the workplace Marijuana ❖​ Relaxing standards may expand with spread of legalized marijuana use ❖​ Drug testing cannot distinguish between past and current use ❖​ Recruitment may be more difficult ❖​ Relaxed standards with recruitment Need for policies and procedures ❖​ Police corruption and brutality previously common ❖​ Shooting an unarmed persons problem today ❖​ Police departments must have policies and procedures to guide police officer behavior Brady Material ❖​ Based on U.S. supreme Court case Brady v. Maryland (1963) ❖​ Accused has a right to any exculpatory evidence ❖​ Exculpatory evidence defined: ★​ Evidence in governments possession that is favorable to the accused and is material to either guilt or punishment ❖​ Violations amount to a denial of right to due process ❖​ Make information available to prosecutor before officers testify When Complaints Arise: Nature and investigation ❖​ Internal and civilian investigations ❖​ Compliant origin ❖​ Types and receipt ❖​ The investigative process ❖​ Determination and disposition ❖​ Level and nature of action ❖​ Determining the final outcome Complaint Origin ❖​ Personal complaint ❖​ Internal complaints ❖​ External complaints ❖​ Citizens complaints (most common) ❖​ Primary source (victim or witness) ❖​ Secondary source(e.g. Attorney, school counselor) Determination and Disposition ❖​ Unfounded ❖​ Exonerated ❖​ Not sustained ❖​ Misconduct not based on the complaint ❖​ Closed ❖​ Sustained -​ Sustained complaint means a complaint where, as the result of an investigation, the allegation is supported by sufficient factual evidence and was a violation of policy. Level and Nature of Action ❖​ Counseling ❖​ Documented oral counseling ❖​ Letter of reprimand ❖​ Suspension ❖​ Demotion ❖​ Transfer ❖​ Termination Early Intervention systems (EIS) ❖​ Tool being adopted at an increasing rate ❖​ Usually an electronic database ❖​ Used to help identity and address problems ❖​ First-line supervisors are key ❖​ Nondisciplinary component of personnel management Negligent supervisor ❖​ Supervisors failure to address problems can lead to civil liability ❖​ Gutierrez-Rodrigues v. Cartagena ★​ Evidence of numerous complaints against supervisor led to $4.5 million judgment ❖​ Bordonaro v. Mcleod ★​ Agency had a widespread practice of unconditional warrantless entries Civil Liability under Negligence ❖​ Negligent assignment ❖​ Negligent failure to supervise ❖​ Negligent failure to direct ❖​ Negligent entrustment ❖​ Negligent failure to investigate or discipline charges Other Areas of potential Liability ❖​ Proximate cause ❖​ Persons in custody and safe facilities ❖​ Failure to protect Vehicle pursuits ❖​ Police must act reasonably ❖​ Police officers afforded no special privileges or immunities ❖​ non emergencies : held to the same standard of conduct as private citizens ❖​ Emergencies: limited immunity in most jurisdictions Chapter 7: Leadership roles in Labor relations: “Navigating the waters” of police unionization History of police Unions ❖​ Started during civil war as fraternal organizations ❖​ Late 1800z and early 1900s led to growth of American Federation of Labor (AFL) ❖​ Boston police strike of 1918 ★​ Condemned by Governor calvin coolidge ★​ Led to district and hatred Police Unions Today ❖​ National Association of police Organizations (NAPO) ❖​ International Brotherhood of police officers ❖​ AFL-CIO affiliated unions ❖​ International brotherhood of police officers ❖​ Collective bargaining agreements impact salaries Models of collective Bargaining ❖​ Binding arbitration ❖​ Meet and confer model ❖​ Bargaining not required model Roles of union and management ❖​ Best of both to minimize or eliminate rancor ❖​ Examples of cooperation and collaboration ★​ Boston marathon bombing extra training and hours ★​ “Mandatory wear” policies for body armor and seat belts ★​ Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) program Negotiation contract provisions ❖​ Issues for negotiation ★​ Better pay, benefits, and working conditions ★​ Broad political issues ❖​ Two sides at the table ★​ Negotiation used to prevent or to resolve disputes ★​ Union and management collective bargaining teams Grievances and Appeals ❖​ Informal discussion: simplest and preferred method ❖​ Will vary among agencies ❖​ May involve several levels of action Navigating the Waters of unionization ❖​ Collective bargaining: essential part of police leadership ❖​ When the relationship become antagonistic, everyone suffers ❖​ Four principles of collective bargaining ★​ Communication ★​ Cooperation ★​ Trust ★​ Respect Navigating the Waters of unionization ❖​ Management should avoid entering every contract negotiation fighting to gain control over discipline and working conditions ❖​ Police leaders should avoid rushing to judgment ❖​ Police leaders should recognize the pressures that exist during a crisis or controversy ❖​ Leadership should not attempt to defend the indefensible ❖​ Leadership should remember that elected officials do not like to make waves ❖​ Avoid making an end run Chapter 9 : Ethics and Accountability: building a culture of integrity and trust Philosophical Foundations of ethics ❖​ Ethics involves doing what is right or correct ❖​ Refers to how people should behave in a professional capacity ❖​ Deontological ethics ★​ Does not consider consequences but instead example one's duty to act ★​ Comes from two greek roots,does meaning duty and logos ★​ Deontology means “the study of duty” ❖​ Immanuel kant expanded ethics of duty by including idea of “good will” Absolute and relative ethics ❖​ Absolute ethics ★​ Only two sides ★​ Something is either good or bad, black or white ❖​ Relative ethics ★​ Can have a multitude of sides with varying shades of gray ★​ Noble cause: corruption committed in the name of good ends Codes of ethics and conduct ❖​ Primary purpose of ethics: guide police decision making ❖​ Law enforcement oath of honor ★​ Oath concisely incorporates values statements and provides the underpinnings of police professionalism ❖​ State statutes and departmental policy govern police behavior. Guardians or soldiers ❖​ “Warrior mindset” with minority shootings ❖​ Crime-fighter versus community-builder mentality ❖​ Need to have a cultural shift in policing to regain trust and legitimacy Constitutional policing and Legitimacy ❖​ Constitutional policing ★​ Cornerstone of community policing and problem-solving efforts ★​ Policies and practices advance Constitutional goals of protecting citizens rights and equal protecting ❖​ Police legitimacy ★​ Extent to which community believes that police actions are appropriate,proper, and just ★​ Public willingness to recognize police authority Pillars of procedural justice ❖​ Perception of fairness to all ❖​ Voice ❖​ Transparency and openness of process ❖​ Impartiality and unbiased decision making Inappropriate police behavior ❖​ Lying and deception ❖​ Acceptance of gratuities and corruption ❖​ Improper use of force ❖​ Verbal psychological abuse ❖​ Violations of civil rights ❖​ Improper sexual relationships Officer Lying and Deception ❖​ Accepted lying ★​ Problem with entrapment ★​ Court recognize deception as an investigative tool ❖​ Deviant lying ★​ Lying that serves legitimate purposes ★​ Lying that conceals or promotes crimes or illegitimate ends Accepting Gratuities ❖​ Gratuities commonly accepted by police officers as a part of their job ❖​ Slippery slope argument that Gratuities are first step in police corruption ❖​ Can lead to grave problems of corruption in law enforcement ❖​ 1972 Knapp commission: active solicitation of Gratuities and gifts was institutionalized Improper use of Authority ❖​ Physical abuse and excessive force ❖​ Verbal and psychological abuse ❖​ Legal abuse and violations of civil rights ❖​ Modern approach: Dynamic resistance response Model (DRRM) ★​ Combines a use of force continuum with an application of four broad categories of suspects Dynamic resistance response Model (DRRM) ❖​ Modern approach ❖​ Combines a use of force continuum with an application of four broad categories of suspects ❖​ Dynamic resistance ❖​ Passive resistance ❖​ Aggressive resistance ❖​ No resistance (compliance) Deadly Force ●​ Extension of excessive physical force ●​ Generally leads to considerable scrutiny by the public and authorities ●​ Can result in disorder and possibly rioting by citizens ●​ Determination whether homicide was justified Verbal and psychological abuse ❖​ Profanity a common method of verbal abuse ❖​ Profane language tends to polarize a situation ❖​ Use of profanity should be discouraged with citizens Legal Abuse and Violations of civil rights ❖​ Concerns police actions that violate a citizens constitutional or statutory rights ❖​ Involves false arrest, false imprisonment, and harassment ❖​ Supervisors and managers play key in prevention Improper sexual relations ❖​ Nonsexual contacts that are sexually motivated ❖​ Voyeuristic contracts ❖​ Contacts with crime victims ❖​ Contacts with juvenile offenders ❖​ Sexual shakedown ❖​ Citizen-initiated sexual contacts Bias-based policing ❖​ Also known as racial profiling ❖​ Driving while black or brown(DWBB) ★​ Police officer acts on a personal bias and stops a vehicle simply because the driver is of a certain race ❖​ Collecting data is best defense Occupational Hazards of policing ●​ Occupational fatality rate for law enforcement significant higher than average workers ●​ Shocking increase in felonious assaults on officers in recent years ●​ High risk for early deaths, heart attacks, and other health-related problem s ●​ Mental health issues -​ Post Traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) -​ Severe depression Transition from Wartime soldier to peacetime cop ●​ Policing generally trying to transform itself from a “soldier” to a “guardian” mindset ●​ Veterans quicker to resort to force in policing situations ●​ Legal impediments for mental health screening Wellness and safety plan ●​ Proactive and reactive approaches ●​ Leadership and management Proactive and reactive Approaches ●​ Proactive approach -​ Encourage employees to use existing services ●​ Reactive approach -​ Develops campaigns, policies, and training programs to address a problem or issue that has emerged Leadership and Management ●​ Leaders cornerstones to ensuring officer safety,health,and wellness ●​ Organizational leaders should “walk the walk” and maintain their own health and fitness ●​ Leadership should get an example for all Steps in developing a wellness campaign ●​ Identify and analyze issues ●​ Establish goals and objectives ●​ Develop strategies ●​ Consider key messages ●​ Identify a budget and resources ●​ Establish evaluation and measurements Need for Training, policy, technology ●​ Balancing of risks ●​ Tactical training ●​ Prevention of injuries ●​ Weaponry ●​ Court security Occupational safety and Health administration (OSHA) ●​ Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) law does not apply to state and local law enforcement agencies ●​ Focusing on occupational health and safety is “Smart business” ●​ Parker v. District of Columbia -​ Court found the police agency liable for an officer using excessive force doe to the officer poor physical fitness Federal Agencies and Task Forces ●​ Officer safety toolkit -​ Shared resources with federal,state,local,and tribal law enforcement leaders ●​ Officer safety and wellness group -​ Focuses on reducing officer deaths and addressing officer wellness issues ●​ President’s 21st Century police task force -​ Report shows large proportion of officer injuries and deaths involve poor physical health Recognizing and Management stress ●​ Four general categories of stress 1.​ Organizational and administrative practices 2.​ The criminal justice system 3.​ The public 4.​ Stress intrinsic to police work itself ●​ Keys to controlling stress -​ Comprehensive wellness program -​ Employee assistance program (EAP) Chapter 13: Managing Homeland Security and Critical Events Terrorist threat ❖​ Terrorism defined ★​ “ premeditated, politically violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups of clandestine agents,usually intended to influence an audience.” ❖​ Often done by Islamic extremists who attack western ideas Major International Terrorist Groups ❖​ Hamas ❖​ Hezbollah ❖​ Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) ❖​ Al Qaeda ❖​ Jabhat al-Nusra ❖​ Boko Haram ❖​ Al-Shabaab Lone Wolf Terrorists ❖​ Lone wolf defined: ★​ A person who acts on his or her own without order from-or connections to-an organization ❖​ Lone wolf examples: ★​ Orlando nightclub shooting (syed Farook and Tashfeen Malik) ★​ Social services agency in san bernardino, California ★​ Chattanooga Navy Reserve shooting Radicalization ❖​ Greatest threat to the United States ❖​ Where someone accepts an extreme belief system, generally jihadist, and consequently has the wherewithal to support or carry out violence to effort changes in society ❖​ Five risk factors that contribute to Radicalization: ★​ Ideology,beliefs, and values ★​ Political grievances ★​ Economic factors ★​ Sociological factors ★​ Psychological factors ●​ Radicalization process phases -​ pre-Radicalization -​ Indoctrination and increased group bonding -​ Conversion and identification -​ Acts of terrison or planned attacks Information Technology ●​ Use of computers and telecommunication to store, retrive, transmit, and manipulate data ●​ Includes records, FBI’s National Crime Information Center, moblie computers, cellular phones, and so on ●​ Managment information systems (MIS) consist of various databases Communication Technology ●​ Radio is primary means ●​ Major issue with interoperability -​ Ability to talk across disciplines and jurisdictions via radio -​ Infrastructure on which the systems run should be carefully selected Final test 4/27 April 13th no class April 18th no class April 25th no class 4,6,11,20,17 there is class