Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

ASIA IN ANCIENT TIMES HIST 1301 | History Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro In contrast to Mesopotamia (3500–3000 BCE), Egypt (3500–3000 BCE), and China (2200– 2000 BCE), the Indus valley civilization does not exhibit strong indications of hereditary kings holding the majority of political authority. However, its technology and culture expanded throughout a region that included Pakistan and western India in addition to portions of modern-day Afghanistan. There, surrounding the Indus River and other streams that are yearly nourished by the monsoons in the area, early human civilizations capable of agriculture developed. Using the force of draft animals like water buffalo, farmers gathered cotton, dates, and peas that had been tamed. Very little evidence of complex monumental construction, burial mounds, or warrior and king dominance can be found in the archaeological record. Rather, a shared culture emerged, shaped by urban design, which included sophisticated drainage networks, well-organized roads, and recognisable bricks baked in ovens. With those tools, the Indus River basin gave rise to Harappa and MohenjoDaro, two of the most highly sophisticated towns in antiquity. Within them, people created a highly urbanised civilization and a complex spiritual life, complete with fire and incense altars, ritual bathing, and a symbolic language based on the venerated creatures elephants and bulls. Craftsmen with passion created textiles and jewellery. The Indus Valley Civilization had a profound influence on subsequent Indian civilizations in all of these areas. How could a society handle such complexity in the absence of a strong, centralised state, given the high degree of labour specialisation and coordination required for irrigated farmland and major urban centres? There is no universally accepted explanation, however it is possible that the Indus Valley Civilization evolved as a collection of tiny, republican-style governments, with priests and other religious experts ruling over a highly hierarchical class structure. However, it does appear plausible that the civilization's downfall was caused by the environmental damage it wreaked onto the neighbouring lands. Crop yields decreased when irrigation gradually replaced rich soil with soil that contained more salt. Increased soil erosion and quick deforestation were caused by the use of wood as a fuel source, such as in the production of oven-fired bricks. When they could no longer support and feed themselves, the majority of the populations in and around Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro seem to have abandoned the sites around 1700 BCE. Prior to their downfall, the two cities were home to a combined population of over forty thousand people, the most of whom resided in relatively opulent multistory mansions with indoor plumbing and grid-like street layouts. Large public structures like bathhouses and the fortified city walls and citadels served as defences. Such accomplishments were probably made possible by the emergence of a written script, which was discovered on clay seals and pottery at the locations. The Indus Valley Civilization used about four hundred symbols in their written language, which served as visual representations of concepts, words, and numbers. Many finished objects were stamped with written seals, suggesting that trade was one of writing's main purposes, even if many of the symbols remain untranslated. Using writing for record-keeping and communication likely contributed to the Indus Valley Civilization's ability to make money via long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and Egypt. Sumerian traders arrived in the Indus River basin to start trading in upscale goods like lapis lazuli. In exchange, it seems that tradesmen and merchants from Mesopotamian towns, including Harappa, settled there to promote commerce. Mesopotamia had a considerable impact on Indian art and culture in this way. Researchers have noted elements of Greek naturalist sculpture in Harappan sculptures, along with a local predilection for depicting human forms in motion as opposed to embracing the Greek emphasis on anatomical accuracy. These ancient towns' contributions to art helped establish a continuous tradition deeply rooted in Indian culture by introducing new artistic forms and motifs. Later, Indian customs like yoga and Hindu deities were linked to stone seals depicting anthropomorphic deities and fantastical monsters. According to a wealth of archaeological data, women living in the Indus Valley were powerful individuals with a focus on rituals. Women were usually buried alongside female relatives, such as their mothers and grandparents, rather than with their husbands, and more figurines showing female deities than male deities were discovered. This is not to say that women were created equal. The fact that many surviving figurines had diverse haircuts and outfits suggests that a wide range of class and ethnic markers were used to distinguish women. One of the most fascinating hints about women's lives in the Indus Valley may be found in a little artefact from Mohenjo-Daro called Dancing Girl. It is a roughly 4.5-inch-tall bronze and copper figure that dates to approximately 2500 BCE. The "lost wax" process of casting bronze produced the nude figure, who is portrayed in a comfortable and self-assured stance with her hair pulled back into a bun. She may have stood in for a female tribal princess of lesser birth, a royal lady, or a temple priestess. The fact that researchers are able to get to so many logical conclusions suggests that the Indus Valley probably had a very sophisticated civilization with a very flexible class system.