A Multicultural South Asia

INDIA, THE INDIAN OCEAN BASIN, and EAST ASIA HIST 1301 | History A Multicultural South Asia The north gradually grew more Muslim as the autonomous kingdoms of northern India declined and eventually fell under the control of the Delhi Sultanate, while the south continued to adhere to Hindu cultural values. By the thirteenth century, Buddhism had become less common as a religion in India, and Hinduism had changed from being a priestonly faith to one in which a larger range of people could participate. Increased devotion to certain gods, such as Shiva and Vishnu, followed this shift. Every town often possessed a temple where the gods were revered and enshrined; these diverse local beliefs gave rise to different god manifestations. Krishna, for instance, was a Vishnu avatar. When Vishnu and Shiva eventually married consort women, their abilities could only be summoned by marriage. As a result, worship of several female deities also developed. On the other hand, male-centered systems are found in Confucianism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. Since Hinduism was a more widely accepted religious system than Buddhism, it eventually rose to become the dominant religion. Hinduism evolved over centuries, starting in the Vedic Age (c. 1500–500 BCE) and drawing from far older traditions, particularly those of the Aryan peoples that arrived in India starting in the third millennium BCE. The Indian caste system was one very unique aspect of Hindu culture that emerged among these peoples. The caste system was restricted at its inception, and society as a whole was divided into four varnas. Brahman (priests), Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishya (merchants and farmers), and Shudra (servile folk) were the four main varnas. In the early days of the system, a person's varna was decided not only by their job but also by their karma, which they accumulated as a result of their dharma, or their adherence to the right behaviours prescribed by cosmic law for their caste, such as avoiding interaction with lower castes. Karma was reciprocal: Negative residue was produced when a believer disregarded their dharma, while good residue was produced when they obeyed their teachers with faithfulness. Samsara, the continuation of the soul beyond death and its metamorphosis, served as a personal motivation for accumulating karma. The ultimate objective is to obtain moksha, or liberation from the karmic cycle and full comprehension of the world. The more good karma an individual accumulated, the better their chances of being reborn in a higher varna in the future life. Reincarnation at a lower varna, on the other hand, happened if too much ill karma accrued. However, the caste system's effects extended much beyond one's own life. The stakes were nothing less than the universe's continuing existence. Following the dharma reduced the possibility of chaos and devastation while maintaining the universe's equilibrium. This ideological system was upheld by a strict hierarchical structure of social segregation. Nonetheless, the caste system's varna communities offered social support to its members and served as a crucial stabilising force in an otherwise unstable Indian society shattered by war, foreign invasion, and political unrest. In Indian civilization, the extended family, comprising parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and in-laws, was the fundamental social unit and the centre of existence. The majority of peasant households were farmers who worked in communities. For a number of reasons, not the least of which being the ban on eating cows, farming was more significant than keeping cattle. Though they are utilised as draft animals on farms, Hindus regard these creatures as sacred. Their milk provided the Hindus with sustenance, while their excrement assisted in fertilising crops. Rice, millet, wheat, barley, lentils, and peas were important crops. The vast network of links within the extended family inspired cooperation among members for the benefit of the neighbourhood. Typically, villages had walls around them and gates that were closed at night when the farmers came in from working the fields. Hinduism promoted a patriarchal household system in which women were subordinate, much like Confucianism did in China. Because of their age and assumed experience, older men were considered wiser than younger men and so superior to all others. Men were also seen as stronger than women and less affected by their emotions. The fact that the eldest man was the head of the home and could have multiple wives—who typically moved in with their husbands' parents— reinforced the male dominance in Hindu families. Even while kids helped out with everyday chores like farming, fundamental skills like reading, writing, and math may be taught in wealthy households. Daughters were frequently married off at an early age, and one of their main concerns was to find the perfect spouse who could support the family financially. A widow may shave her head, sleep on the floor, eat only one meal a day, and abstain from family celebrations, but she had no existence away from her spouse. In an act of ceremonial suicide known as sati, a wealthy widow—especially one from the Kshatriya or warrior caste— might fling herself upon her husband's cremation pyre. In order to boost local economies, kings started awarding land concessions to government officials and Brahman priests towards the end of the Gupta era, in the sixth century. The grantees frequently gained power over entire towns whose residents were included in the donations. In the end, land concessions were also given to monasteries and temples in the hopes that this would promote more widespread economic development and reduce reliance on the federal government. Despite the political unrest of the time, a lot of advancements in culture and technology as well as the propagation of novel concepts and belief systems took place. For instance, improvements in textile and shipbuilding encouraged coastal trade, particularly in Southeast Asia. Ironically, a lot of these changes were brought about by the same factors that rocked India's political system, as the constant inflow and outflow of foreigners into the north crossed-pollinated the cultural foundation of the area, giving rise to fresh concepts and useful inventions. India's yearly monsoon winds contributed to the spread of ideas by extending the exposure of marine traders to Indian society and culture by preventing summer arrivals from leaving until the winter monsoon season. One of the most significant and longlasting outcomes of commerce was the expansion of Buddhism, which started to gain traction worldwide as a rival to and somewhat modified form of Hinduism. It was adopted by several Southeast Asian regions, ranging from what is now Thailand to Java and the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Theravada, also known as "the path of the elders," is the oldest branch of Buddhism still in existence. Mahayana, on the other hand, is known as "the greater vehicle," and both existed by the first century BCE. The bigger branch, Mahayana, ultimately made its way to China, Korea, and Japan via the major trade routes of Asia, where it was progressively influenced by regional concepts. Theravada Buddhism spread over Southeast Asia, southern India, and Sri Lanka. Buddhism, in contrast to Hinduism, condemned the caste system and did not promote it, which increased its reach outside. Thus, it also attracted to those from lower castes. Still, Hinduism had an impact on a lot of kingdoms, especially with regard to the idea of dharma. The written language of India, Sanskrit, also made its way to numerous courts in southeast Asia, further solidifying Indian culture's widespread impact.