Song China and the Steppe Peoples

PAX MONGOLICA : THE STEPPE EMPIRE OF THE MONGOLS HIST 1301 | History Song China and the Steppe Peoples An important turning point in the history of the area was the fall of the Tang dynasty in China in 907 CE, which set off a chain of events that would influence the political, social, and cultural climate for centuries to come. The once-unified empire broke apart with the fall of the centralised government, leaving a patchwork of tiny, autonomous republics fighting for dominance over their respective regions. Aspiring generals and warlords looking to carve out their own realms from the ashes of the Tang empire found this power vacuum to be a fruitful field. Notable figures were the Khitan Liao and the Xia, who were traditionally semi-nomadic peoples from the sparsely populated highlands and grasslands north of China's boundaries. These factions took over large portions of the formerly Tang domain, solidifying their position as strongholds within the area. But a major break from their ancient ways was observed as they moved from a nomadic to a more stable way of life. They started to embrace urbanisation and agrarian activities, laying the groundwork for what would later become essential elements of Chinese civilization. They were no longer exclusively dependent on cyclical migrations for hunting and animal grazing. However, these newly formed nations continued to face ongoing difficulties from internal conflict and outside threats in spite of their increased stability and geographical growth. These young polities frequently clashed with one another due to the lack of a central authority and a legal succession plan, which sowed the seeds of instability and strife. Away from here, other semi-nomadic peoples like the Tatars and Mongols remained to occupy the great lands in the west and north. These communities did not have formal governing institutions or permanent settlements like their counterparts to the south. Instead, they maintained a more flexible and loosely organised social structure. They had irregular trades of goods and occasionally engaged in raids and plunder with the sedentary societies to the south. Amidst this turbulent environment, the Zhao family became a major political power in the centre and southern areas that were formerly ruled by the Tang. The Zhao patriarch claimed to be the Son of Heaven, establishing himself as China's legitimate ruler by appealing to the old Chinese notion of the Mandate of Heaven, which supported the legitimacy of rulers on the grounds of their moral excellence and supernatural endorsement. But the Khitan Liao and Xia, who rejected the validity of the Zhao patriarch's leadership, fiercely opposed the declaration of Zhao authority. The Song dynasty, as it would come to be called, was limited to a considerably smaller realm in comparison to the vast empires of the Han and Tang dynasties, despite attempts to impose recognition by military means. Nevertheless, the Song dynasty was able to create a rather rich and stable state in spite of these difficulties. Periods of economic expansion and cultural flowering were witnessed in Song China, which had a continuously increasing population and level of living. But the Song dynasty's stability was short-lived. The Song dynasty suffered a severe blow in the 1120s when it lost territory and had military failures that stopped its economic growth and cast doubt on the future of the country. Nevertheless, the Song state's resiliency allowed it to rise above these defeats and leave the verge of collapse. But the reprieve would not last long. The Song dynasty faced an existential threat as the Mongol invasion swept through northern China in the 1230s. With the goal of establishing their own dynastic control over the area and permanently changing the path of Chinese culture, the Mongols, led by leaders like Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan, would open a new chapter in Chinese history with their invasion.