The Last Gasp of Mongol Expansion

PAX MONGOLICA : THE STEPPE EMPIRE OF THE MONGOLS HIST 1301 | History The Last Gasp of Mongol Expansion The majority did not come together in favour of Mongke, the grandson of Chinggis Khan, until 1251. Although Mongke was successful in increasing Mongol territories, his rule would also herald the end of the Mongol Empire as a whole and the cessation of further conquest. Mongke was positioned to recreate the magnificence of united Mongol power by fusing the greatest qualities of Ogedei and Chinggis Khan. In order to examine not just taxes but also the natural and people resources of his realms, Alexander ordered a census that helped stabilise the empire. He pursued multidirectional growth to boost the empire's wealth and quell any restless energy that may be directed against him. While his other brother Kublai Khan was despatched to Song China, his brother Hulagu Khan was given the task of subduing the Islamic world. Hulagu achieved great success by taking advantage of pre-existing tensions, such as the animosity of the minority Shia Muslims towards the Sunni caliph, just like his grandfather did in northern China. Utilising this tactic together with the Mongols' custom of sparing from annihilation people who would recognise Mongol authority and pay tribute without resistance, Hulagu was able to seize control of a large portion of the caliph's territory, particularly Shia districts. His soldiers had encircled Baghdad by late 1257, and the city's physical defences had been compromised by early 1258. The caliph was slain, and tens, if not hundreds, of thousands, were slaughtered. Kublai, meantime, was equally successful and annexed parts of Tibet and southwest China. He started to support Tibetan Buddhism during the campaign, but not to the point that he disregarded or persecuted adherents of other religions. After that, Mongke sent him to oversee the formerly Jin lands that his grandfather had taken. In 1256, Mongke started a more extensive campaign against the Song after realising their vulnerability. Mongke, who was presumably also interested in keeping a close eye on Kublai, ordered Kublai to assist him in the fight against the Song in 1259 after learning that the latter was setting up a power base in northern China. Mongke, however, passed away before Kublai could reach him; the cause was probably sickness. In front of a kurultai, his cousin Ariq Boke—another of Chinggis Khan's grandchildren and the one left in charge of running the Mongol homeland—announced himself the next khan of the Mongol Empire. Kublai, who was on his way back for the kurultai, also proclaimed himself the new khan after hearing this. Even though Kublai proved to be a strong and capable leader, a lot had changed since Chinggis' time, and the scene was being prepared for the collapse of the Mongol Empire as a whole and the rise of a single khan who ruled over all the lands they had taken. Sustained conquest had been a key element in preventing adversaries from needlessly undermining or subverting the authority of the selected great khan. Given the vastness and variety of the empire the Mongols now dominated, these adversaries saw fresh possibilities to assert their own dominance after this age of growth came to an end. The failure of the Mongol Empire's last kurultai resulted in the kingdom's irreversible division. Hulagu and his sibling Kublai stood together. Ariq Boke was backed by the Golden Horde, which was now governed by Batu's younger brother Berke. This put Orghina, the granddaughter of Chinggis Khan and sister-in- law to Hulagu, in a position to decide which of her cousins would lead the Mongol Empire. As the regent for her son, who was too young to take on a leadership role, Orghina opted for neutrality and did not support any of the claimants. The progress women had made under the yassa is demonstrated by the fact that she was making this decision herself rather than counselling a male who would. In the end, Kublai won because of his connections to the army occupying China and his powerful, resource-rich stronghold in the northeast, which put him in a good position to fend off Ariq Boke's assaults. Ariq Boke travelled to Kublai's capital in 1264 and gave himself up. A few years later, while under house arrest, he most likely succumbed to poisoning. Hulagu, referring to himself as the "lesser khan" and his domain as the "Il-Khanate," acknowledged Kublai as the great khan. However, Kublai and his successors followed different strategies, and his control over the Chagatai Khanate was only as strong as the forces he committed to upholding it. He could not possibly reach the Golden Horde. From this point on, the once unified Mongol Empire's regions were run independently and underwent distinct development. To differentiate them from the previous era of unity, historians refer to them as khanates: the Khanate of the Great Khan, IlKhanate, Chagatai Khanate, and the Khanate of the Golden Horde. A rift between Mongols who want to maintain their old nomadic lifestyles and those who were ready to live as settled people was also evident in the power struggle between Kublai and Ariq Boke. Hulagu and Kublai stood stand for Mongols who were open to assimilating into certain parts of civilised society. The established lifestyle was further embraced by their successors, particularly Kublai's. Ariq Boke reflected the essence of their old nomadic culture, which had been under siege since Temujin turned into Chinggis Khan. Unlike traditional Mongol conventions and practices, Ariq Boke aspired to foster harmony and justice. Even though the Mongol armies were a powerful force in open combat on vast plains, they were only able to overthrow the wealthiest cities in the world, transport their wealth to the Mongolian plain, and—above all—create the bureaucratic structures necessary to distribute and maintain it. This was made possible by the assistance of settled people and their technologies.