The Iberian Peninsula and the World of Al-Andalus

THE POST-ROMAN WEST and THE CRUSADING MOVEMENT HIST 1301 | History The Iberian Peninsula and the World of Al-Andalus The Visigoth kings, like the Ostrogoths, tried to imitate Roman institutions in Spain by establishing written laws, but they had a tense relationship with their Hispano-Roman people and, in contrast to Theodoric and Clovis, tended to keep their distance from them. Although the Visigoths were Arian Christians and accepted their non-Arian people, King Recared was finally forced to convert to Catholicism in order to win the church's support and better merge with the populace. But in 711, the Umayyad Caliphate's forces crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and seized control of the country. Just as the Visigoths had not been able to conquer the entire peninsula, neither did the Umayyad army that invaded Spain. Notwithstanding their weakness and propensity for conflict, Christian kingdoms continued to exist in the north. Another factor was that when Arab commanders split the spoils of conquest, non-Arabic warriors, such as the Amazigh (Berbers) of North Africa, constantly felt cheated out of their share. In addition to being a major factor in the fall of the Umayyad dynasty, this ethnic and regional struggle also helped a branch of it establish itself in Spain. The territory was known to Muslims as Al-Andalus, and it was ruled by Umayyad dynasty members who had escaped their overthrow by the Abbasid dynasty. Abd al-Rahman I took advantage of the unhappiness that non-Arab warriors felt after conquering Spain, as he fled Syria after his family was destroyed. He was able to form coalitions, vanquish his adversaries, and ascend to the throne of Al-Andalus with their assistance. He made Cordoba his capital and set about creating a new civilization based on Islamic law with the goal of encroaching on Christian territory. A monument to the global milieu of the early Middle Ages, Abd al-Rahman and his successors established a unique society that was multireligious and multiethnic, and that maintained diplomatic and commercial links across the Mediterranean realm and beyond. Cordoba quickly became a centre of trade, education, and the arts on par with Baghdad and Constantinople. The resurgence of commerce and, by extension, the resurgence of urban life were guaranteed by connections to North Africa and the Middle East. Whether they converted or not, a large number of Christians there assimilated into Islamic society by learning Arabic, dressed like their Amazigh and Arab overlords, and engaging in their customs. This is the reason they are referred to as "Mozarabs." This is an excellent example of mediaeval toleration in that Christians, Muslims, and Jews all lived and worked in close proximity to one another. However, as the fight between the Arians and the Catholics shows, violence by the dominant group was always a possibility. Al-Andalus peaked in the century after the ninth. It was a vibrant community, with a populace that flourished and developed a hybrid culture combining elements of the Iberian Peninsula's ethnic and religious traditions. Trade grew throughout the Mediterranean and into sub-Saharan Africa under Abd al-Rahman III. This connection to the wider Mediterranean allowed for interactions that were not always possible in the Germanic kingdoms and brought new agricultural products to the peninsula from as far away as India, including citrus fruit, sugar, and cotton. Cordoba rose to popularity as a result of its lemon, lime, and orange orchards. Another distinction from the Germanic kingdoms is that the expansion of trade and commerce also aided in the revitalization of cities. For example, Cordoba was one of the most populated cities in Europe by the year 1000, with around 100,000 residents. Scholars, artisans, traders, and immigrants were drawn there in larger quantities than to the Germanic north because of its strong ties to the Mediterranean region. Nevertheless, Germanic tradesmen and merchants also established ties with Christian and Muslim-ruled Spanish kingdoms. To aid in running the kingdom, the caliphs employed linguists and intellectuals as well as founded schools of Islamic law. Searching for ancient Greek and Latin texts to translate, these academics trawled over Spain. Scholars of both Judaism and Christianity discovered that the caliphate was a hub for learning, leading to the development of Jewish religious poetry and philosophy. Jews and Christians were regarded as "protected" under Islamic law. This meant that as long as they did not contradict Muslims' beliefs, they could not be forced to convert because they too believed in a single God. This age of tolerance, which is now known as convivencia, or "living together," has been seen by some historians as a prime illustration of peaceful cohabitation and communication between people of many religious beliefs. Toleration was always conceivable, but it depended on the presence of willing leaders who desired peace. This is demonstrated once again by the hostility of the Christian kingdoms in the north and the rise of fervent Islamic leaders in North Africa. Religious tensions may make toleration less attractive as Christian-Muslim conflict intensifies. For example, chipping away at convivencia were Islamic empires and Christian emperors who saw religious identity as a source of inspiration for troops. Conflicts between rulers of various religions continued despite the continuous tolerance that one faith's rulers may demonstrate to their citizens. Up to the eleventh century, the Christian kingdoms in the northern part of the peninsula were successfully overthrown by the Islamic monarchs of Al-Andalus. For instance, in the 990s, two significant centres of Christian political authority—Leon in the northwest and Barcelona on the eastern coast—were attacked by the formidable commander al-Mansur. Nevertheless, despite its victories in the north, the Caliphate of Cordoba fell because of internal strife following the demise of al-Mansur. Local aristocrats also caused the disintegration of AlAndalus, resulting in smaller successor states that frequently engaged in combat both with Christian fighters and with one another. The eleventh-century battles were still primarily about knights—rapid-moving, heavily armoured warriors on horseback who sought renown and plunder—but they also paved the way for confrontations centred around religious dominance and cultural conquest. The popes' attention was drawn to the devastation of the Christian states in Spain, which influenced the church's advocacy of a battle against Islam that was approved by religion.