The Echoes of Empire: The Interwar World

THE INTERWAR PERIOD HIST 1301 | History Old Empires and New Colonies The world saw significant change throughout the interwar years, not only in Europe. Several long-standing empires fell during this time, and new political and social forces emerged that would influence the destiny of many different areas. The fall of the Ottoman Empire, a huge and varied state that had ruled over portions of Europe, Asia, and Africa for more than six centuries, was one of the biggest shifts. Following World War I, the empire collapsed, giving rise to the Republic of Turkey as well as numerous other new Middle Eastern governments. Under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's direction, Turkey started along a road of secularisation and modernization, aiming to create a nation-state that rejected many of its antiquated institutions while retaining a large portion of the Ottoman heritage. The Ottoman possessions were formally divided by the Treaties of Sèvres and Lausanne, which resulted in the establishment of modern states governed by the British and French, including Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq. Since the artificial lines sometimes disregarded racial, religious, and tribal affinities, this boundary redrawing planted the seeds for more hostilities. The reassignment of Germany's colonies to the victorious Allied forces significantly changed the geopolitical landscape in Africa and Asia. Under the League of Nations, these once German territories were changed into mandates with the intention of preparing them for selfgovernance, but in reality, European countries continued to have authority over them. For example, Britain and France shared German colonies in Africa, including Togoland, Cameroon, and German East Africa. German holdings in the Pacific, such as the Marshall, Mariana, and Caroline Islands, were seized by Japan. New colonial rulers frequently exacerbated preexisting resentments and fueled the rise of nationalism movements throughout these areas. The prospect of self-determination in Africa was met with the harsh reality of ongoing European dominance, which fueled feelings of injustice and sparked the initial steps of anticolonial resistance. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States promoted the idea of self-determination, which had a significant influence on interwar politics. The idea was implemented unevenly and was frequently restricted to European contexts, but its rhetoric struck a chord throughout the world and gave rise to nationalist movements and ideologies. As they struggled for freedom from colonial control, leaders in Asia such as Sun Yat-sen in China, Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, and Mahatma Gandhi in India embraced the concept of selfdetermination. Thus, the interwar years proved pivotal for the formulation and dissemination of nationalist ambitions, as demands for sovereignty and self-rule surged in numerous colonies and semi-colonial regions. Many of the people living in the Middle East did not immediately experience stability or selfdetermination following the fall of Ottoman rule. Rather, the newly established states were frequently governed by orders and forces from without, disregarding the will of the people living there. As Jewish and Arab nationalism organisations contended over territorial claims and administration, the British mandate in Palestine, for instance, became a main point of conflict. Similar instability and revolutions resulted under foreign authority in Iraq and Syria, indicating broad discontent with the mandate system. It was anticipated that these mandated areas would become independent, but there were many obstacles in their way, including as civil unrest, political unpredictability, and economic hardship. Significant political and social changes were brought about in India during the interwar years by the Indian independence movement. With the Indian National Congress and other political organisations pushing for self-governance, the fight for independence from British colonial control gathered steam. Mahatma Gandhi's 1930 Salt March served as an example of the peaceful resistance that defined a large portion of the Indian independence struggle. The movement's ability to garner broad support demonstrated the strength of nationalist feelings and the aspiration for independence. Deepening religious divides were also observed during this time, and these events would ultimately result in the partition of India and the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. Nationalist groups gained traction in East Asia during the interwar period, and the region experienced a surge in the fight for independence from colonial and imperial rule. Various groups in China attempted to fill the power vacuum created by the Qing Dynasty's fall in 1912. A pivotal period in modern Chinese history was marked by the May Fourth Movement of 1919, when intellectuals and students protested against foreign influence and demanded modernization and reform. Following a protracted civil war, this movement prepared the way for the Chinese Communist Party to ascend to power in 1949. As a result of Japanese colonial control, nationalist feelings in Korea rose and culminated in the 1919 March 1st Movement, which demanded Korean independence and sparked other resistance actions. Not just the Middle East, Africa, and Asia saw substantial transformations in the interwar years. Changes in political dynamics were also observed in Latin America, as several nations went through periods of instability, revolution, and reform. The Mexican Revolution, which started in 1910, altered the political climate of Mexico for a long time, lasting far into the 1920s. Significant social and economic changes were brought about by the revolution, including attempts to lessen the dominance of foreign money and land reforms. Similar to this, Getúlio Vargas's revolution in Brazil in 1930 signalled the start of a new period in political history there, one that was defined by attempts to modernise the economy and lessen dependency on coffee exports. As a result, the interwar era was marked by profound upheaval and change as new political realities were established and nationalist movements gained momentum globally due to the fall of established empires and the transfer of colonial lands. Even if it was not always used, the discourse of self-determination offered anyone who want to oppose colonial and imperial authority a potent intellectual weapon. Thus, the interwar period prepared the ground for many of the decolonization movements that would materialise in the post-World War II era, radically transforming the political landscape of the world and spawning new states and modes of government. The boundaries established and the disputes sparked by these years continue to influence both internal and international politics in many different parts of the world.