The Napoleonic Era

REVOLUTIONS IN LATIN AMERICA HIST 1301 | History The Napoleonic Era The idea that all men are created equal was emphasised in both the 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence and the 1789 French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. However, women and those who were slaves were typically disregarded in both Europe and the United States, as these papers were meant to apply largely to White males of European origin. The rights that "all men" were claimed to have included the freedom of speech, the right to own property, and the ability to take part in political life—rights that were important to free White males. These texts were only read by the most radical individuals in France and the United States to suggest that women should have the same rights as males or that persons of other races should be treated on an equal footing with White people in terms of social standing and rights. Nevertheless, one of the most important outcomes of the French Revolution in the Americas was a slave uprising in Saint-Domingue that was partly spurred by these writings. Slave Africans were brought to the island to work on plantations growing sugar, coffee, and indigo. This led to the founding of the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which is situated on the western side of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in the middle of the 1600s and quickly became the most prosperous colony in the Americas. Born into slavery on nearby farms, Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines organised a rebellion of freed and enslaved Africans and other islanders of African heritage in 1791. After this uprising developed into a full-fledged revolution, the colony gained its independence and the Free Republic of Haiti was proclaimed in 1804. Therefore, the Haitian Revolution is distinct in that the people at the bottom of the social hierarchy fought for independence in Saint-Domingue, rather than White colonists of European descent seeking political representation and increased economic freedom, as had been the case in the British colonies of North America. The Haitian uprising aimed to achieve two distinct sorts of emancipation. Freedom meant an end to colonialism and independence from French authority for aristocratic Blacks and people of mixed races. For Black people who were enslaved, emancipation meant an end to slavery and freedom from the cruelty they endured on the plantation. By January 1804, Black rebels had successfully established the country of Haiti by decimating the French army, which was already afflicted by an outbreak of yellow fever. Haiti emerged as the second nation in the Western Hemisphere to be freed and established as a republic. Political leaders in the Americas were concerned that if the Haitian insurrection was successful, it might lead to further slave uprisings. The creole aristocracy was reluctant to emulate the liberty-seeking Anglo-American colonists, which dampened rather than heightened their support for independence from their parent countries. This was due to the fear that American Indians, free and enslaved Africans, and people of mixed-race ancestry might launch their own violent bids for independence. Rather, the dissolution of links between Spain and Portugal and their separate colonies would result from events on the Iberian Peninsula itself. Portugal and Spain backed opposing forces in the conflict between France and the other European countries who banded together to oppose Napoleon Bonaparte, the French emperor, during the Napoleonic Era (1803–1814). Spain was an ally of France, but Portugal maintained its long- standing connections with Great Britain, Napoleon's nemesis. The House of Bourbon had dominated Spain since the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and Carlos IV, the monarch of the house at the time, embarked on a catastrophic campaign of war with England. In addition to halting trade between Spain and its colonies, British naval blockades also resulted in the attack of Buenos Aires in the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata (modern-day Argentina) in 1806. The invasion demonstrated to the Spanish American colonists the weakness of their own city and Spain's incapacity to defend them, even if local forces beat the British. Napoleon's Continental System, often known as the Continental Blockade, was put into effect in 1807 and mandated that English ships be barred from all European ports. Nonetheless, Portugal kept up commerce with one of its oldest friends, Britain. As long as Britain was able to access European trade through Portugal, it would be impossible to defeat. However, France would have to attack Portugal in order to make it comply, and it could only do so by marching through Spain. By this point, Spain had turned into a weak French vassal, and Napoleon had little trouble getting the Spanish Crown to grant him authorization to invade Portugal on land. Spanish subjects suffered greatly as a result of occupation, warfare, and taxes. As public discontent with the pro-French policies grew, Carlos IV felt compelled to step down in favour of his son Fernando. Napoleon interfered in the succession process very swiftly, taking both men into custody and forcing them to renounce their claims to the Spanish crown in order to establish his brother Joseph Bonaparte as the next monarch of Spain. Napoleon's scheme, however, did not quite work out. Early in 1808, the majority of Spanish citizens rebelled against Joseph Bonaparte, together with some republicans in the colonies and creole royalists. The uprising started in Madrid and swiftly extended to other Iberian Peninsulan cities. Ultimately, British, Spanish, and Portuguese armies would combat the French in the Peninsular War (1808–1814).