University:
University of Edinburgh
Course:
BUST08004 | Marketing
Academic year:

2015
Views:

62

Pages:

61
Author:

saule5749g0yo

General Equilibrium and Economic Welfare Lecture 7 August 2015 1 / 61 Introduction Shocks a¤ect many markets at the same time. Di¤erent markets feed back into each other. Today, we look at how equilibrium is determined in the market as a whole. 2 / 61 Introduction We then compare di¤erent possible equilibria. Is one equilibrium better than another? Is this equilibrium e¢ cient? Is this equilibrium equitable? 3 / 61 Introduction When comparing di¤erent outcomes, we often look at Pareto e¢ ciency. An outcome is Pareto e¢ cient if you cannot make anybody better o¤ without harming somebody else. 4 / 61 Introduction EXAMPLE Which of these situations is Pareto e¢ cient? Sean has 10 …sh and Anna has no …sh. 1 Anna hates …sh and Sean loves …sh. 2 Sean hates …sh and Anna loves …sh. 3 Both Sean and Anna like …sh, but Sean likes …sh more so than Anna. 4 Both Sean and Anna like …sh, but Anna likes …sh more so than Sean. 5 / 61 Outline General Equilibrium - Looking at all the markets at once. General Equilibrium Exchange Economy: Trading Between Two People - Equilibrium in an economy when there are just two people who trade. Competitive Exchange - Equilibrium in an economy when there are prices. Production and Trading - Equilibrium when there is production. E¢ ciency and Equity - There are many Pareto-e¢ cient allocations, but which is best? 6 / 61 General Equilibrium We have only looked at partial-equilibrium analysis in this course. In partial-equilibrium analysis, we look at one market in isolation, other markets are …xed. But the economy is a complex system and markets feedback into each other. General-equilibrium analysis studies equilibrium in all markets simultaneously. 7 / 61 General Equilibrium Partial equilibrium analysis can lead to bias. Consider the market for DVDs and cinema tickets. The government taxes movie tickets. If we look at partial equilibrium, the supply curve for movie tickets shifts and we are done. If we look at general equilibrium, we consider how this might a¤ect the DVD market (which feed back into the movie ticket market). 8 / 61 General Equilibrium A leftward shift in the supply for cinema tickets will increase the price of cinema tickets. This will increase demand for DVDs because DVDs and cinema tickets are substitutes. The price of DVDs will go up. The demand curve for cinema tickets will shift to the right because the price of DVDs went up. 9 / 61 General Equilibrium 10 / 61 General Equilibrium EXAMPLE Tea and sugar are complements. Sugar workers go on strike. Use general equilibrium analysis to determine what will happen in the sugar and tea markets. 11 / 61 General Equilibrium We can analytically …nd the price and quantity as well. Suppose the demand for goods 1 and 2 depend on the prices of both goods Q1 = D1 (p1 , p2 ) Q2 = D2 (p1 , p2 ) Suppose supply for each good depends on only the good’s price Q1 = S1 (p1 ) Q2 = S2 (p2 ) 12 / 61 General Equilibrium To solve for equilibria, we must …nd a simultaneous equilibrium in all markets. It is easy if everything is linear Q1d Q2d Q1s Q2s = = = = a1 b1 p1 + c1 p2 a2 b2 p2 + c2 p1 d1 + e1 p1 d2 + e2 p2 13 / 61 Equilibrium in Two Interrelated Markets The equilibrium prices would be p1 = p2 = (b2 + e2 ) (a1 d1 ) + c1 (a2 d2 ) (b1 + e1 ) (b2 + e2 ) c1 c2 (b1 + e1 ) (a2 d2 ) + c2 (a1 d1 ) (b1 + e1 ) (b2 + e2 ) c1 c2 14 / 61 Equilibrium in Two Interrelated Markets In partial equilibrium analysis, you have 2 equations in your system. In general equilibrium, you have 2N equations in your system where N is the number of markets. 15 / 61 Trading Between Two People There are thousands of markets out there and they all will feed back into each other. Lets make our economy as simple as we can can. Two people have endowments of two goods and they voluntarily trade with each other. In this simple world, the price of goods are jointly determined. This allows us to easily compare equilibria. 16 / 61 Trading Between Two People We can illustrate these endowments on an indi¤erence map 17 / 61 Trading Between Two People Flip one of their maps upside down and we get an Edgeworth Box. The size of the box represents how much of each good there is in the economy. Point e is the endowment point. The two people can voluntarily trade with each other and get to any point on the box. Both people want to be further from their origin. 18 / 61 Trading Between Two People 19 / 61 Trading Between Two People EXAMPLE Draw an Edgeworth box for Kimon and Rebecca for bananas and apples. Show their indi¤erence curves and the endowment point. Kimon has 10 bananas and 1 apple. Rebecca has 4 apples and 10 bananas. 20 / 61 Trading Between Two People Now back to the previous case with Denise and Jane. Denise and Jane will trade if they can both be made better o¤. When will trading stop? 21 / 61 Trading Between Two People Lets make some assumptions about their tastes Utility maximization - Everybody is maximizing their utility Convex indi¤erence curves - Indi¤erence curves are the usual convex shape (very easy to relax) Non-satiation - More is better, everybody wants to go as far from their origin as they can. No interdependence - Don’t care how much the other person gets. 22 / 61 Trading Between Two People Consider point e, can do mutually bene…cial trades exist? Yes, you could move to point f and both people are better o¤. Point e is therefore not an equilibrium. 23 / 61 Trading Between Two People People will keep trading until no mutually bene…cial trades remain. This occurs at point f . At point f, their indi¤erence curves are tangent (MRSJ = MRSD ) We can connect all the Pareto e¢ cient points (all the points where there indi¤erence curves are tangent) to get the contract curve. No matter where the endowment point is, people will trade until they reach the contract curve. If you are not on the contract curve, mutually bene…cial trades exist. 24 / 61 Trading Between Two People 25 / 61 Trading Between Two People EXAMPLE Draw and edgeworth box showing a point that is not Pareto e¢ cient, a point that is Pareto e¢ cient and draw the contract curve. 26 / 61 Trading Between Two People EXAMPLE Suppose Sonia’s utility function is US = yx 2 Anne’s utility function is UA = xy Sonia has 4 x and 2 y Anne has 2 x and 8 y Is this e¢ cient? Can they gain from trade? 27 / 61 Trading Between Two People We can derive the contract curve analytically using constrained optimization. Remember we are trying to …nd the condition under which we can make one individual as well o¤ as possible without harming the other. We …x one person’s utility and maximize the other person’s with respect to it. 28 / 61 Trading Between Two People max L = Uj (qj 1 , qj 2 ) + λ Ud (q1 qj 1 , q2 qj 2 ) Ud We are maximizing the utility of Jane such that the utility of Denise does not change. q1 = qj 1 + qd 1 is the total amount of q1 and q1 q1 Denise has qj 1 is how much of 29 / 61 Trading Between Two People ∂L dqj 1 ∂L dqj 2 ∂L dλ = = ∂Uj dqj 1 ∂Uj dqj 2 = Ud (q1 ∂Ud =0 dqj 1 ∂Ud λ =0 dqj 2 (1) λ qj 1 , q2 (2) qj 2 ) Ud = 0 30 / 61 Trading Between Two People If we equate equation 1 and 2 we …nd the same result MRSj = ∂U j d qj 1 ∂U j d qj 2 = ∂U d d qj 1 ∂U d d qj 2 = MRSd 31 / 61 Competitive Exchange We have made no references to prices so far Denise and Jane can somehow bargain with each other to get to the contract curve But now lets say that Denise and Jane can purchase wood and candy bars at a market price 32 / 61 Competitive Exchange In a competitive market, prices will adjust until quantity supplied equals quantity demanded Think of an auctioneer who calls out relative prices and asks how much each person wants to sell and buy If quantity demanded does not equal quantity supplied, the auctioneer will call out another price Once they are equal, the auctioneer stops 33 / 61 Competitive Exchange The equilibrium we get to has two nice properties 1 The competitive market equilibrium is e¢ cient (Pareto) 2 Any e¢ cient allocation you desire can be achieved by competition These are the …rst and second theorems of welfare economics respectively (Adam Smith) 34 / 61 Competitive Exchange Remember people will maximize their utility subject to the budget line The slope of the budget line is just the price ratio. 35 / 61 Competitive Exchange Prices will adjust until both people’s indi¤erence curves are tangent to their budget line. We reach point f once again. 36 / 61 Competitive Exchange At this point, MRSj = pc pw = MRSd The number of units Jane wants to sell is exactly equal to the number Denise wants to buy at the price ratio and vice versa. At any other price ratio, one individual will demand more units than the other is willing to supply. This is e¢ cient, and this leads us to the …rst theorem of welfare economics that any competitive equilibrium is Pareto e¢ cient. This is Adam Smith’s invisible hand (…rst welfare theorem) 37 / 61 Competitive Exchange We know that the competitive equilibrium will occur on the contract curve. If the social planner has some equilibrium in mind on the contract curve, she can achieve it. Just redistribute the endowment to anywhere on the equilibrium price line. This is Smith’s second welfare theorem. 38 / 61 Production and Trading Lets throw production in the mix. Jane can produce 3 candy bars or 6 cords of …rewood (or she can split her time between) Denise can produce 3 cords of wood or 6 candy bars a day. 39 / 61 Production and Trading The opportunity cost of producing one candy bar for jane is 2 pieces of wood, it is half a piece of wood for Denise Because Denise has a lower opportunity cost of producing candy, she has a comparative advantage in the production of that good. Comparative advantage is what drives classical international trade theory. 40 / 61 Production and Trading We can plot the production possibilities frontier This shows how much of each good Jane and Denise can produce by themselves or jointly. Why does the joint production not kink the other way? 41 / 61 Production and Trading The slope of the production possibilities frontier is the marginal rate of transformation. Jane and Denise have di¤erent marginal rates of transformation, so they can gain from trade. 42 / 61 Production and Trading If we add a third person with a di¤erent MRT , we get a second kink. Keep adding at we get a smooth PPF . The slope of the PPF is the ratio of marginal costs If MCA = $2 and MCB = $1, the producer must give up half a unit of A to get one unit of B. 43 / 61 Production and Trading If there is just one person, she will produce where her MRT = MRS (highest indi¤erence curve) 44 / 61 Production and Trading Each price-taking consumer picks a bundle such that MRS = pc pw . If all consumers face the same prices and have the same MRS, they will pick the same bundle. Cannot redistribute to make anybody better o¤ so we achieve consumption e¢ ciency. 45 / 61 Production and Trading If …rms are competitive, the will set price equal to marginal cost. pc pw pc pw = MCc = MCw MCc = = MRT MCw Thus, in the competitive equilibrium. MRS = pc = MRT pw We achieve an e¢ cient product mix even though there is no social planner. 46 / 61 Production and Trading 47 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity There are many di¤erent possible equilibria. Some are more equitable than others. By redistributing endowments, the government determines who gets how much of the pie. What should the government’s objective be with this tool? 48 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity Many say we should use the Pareto principle to rank allocations. If x is Pareto ranked above y , people are better o¤ at x and nobody else is harmed. x is Pareto superior to y . But there are many Pareto e¢ cient allocation. 49 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity If we can’t use the Pareto principle, we must make additional value judgments to rank allocations We need to have some social welfare function, which ranks di¤erent allocations based on a combination of people’s utilities. We can plot all the combinations of utilities which is called a utility possibilities frontier Then we can pick which point on the frontier gives us the highest welfare through isowelfare curves. 50 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity 51 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity But which social welfare function should we use? We could settle it by voting, where we allow the majority to select which allocation they prefer most But if people have di¤erent orderings, society much have intransitive preferences over bundle comparisons 52 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity For democratic decision making to occur, a number of conditions must be met. This is due to Nobel Prize winner Kenneth Arrow 53 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity 1 Social preferences must be complete and transitive 2 If everybody prefers a to b, a should be preferred socially to b. 3 Society’s rankings of a and b should depend only on individuals orderings of the two allocations 4 Dictatorship is not allowed, social preferences must not re‡ect the preferences of a single individual. Arrow proved that it is impossible to …nd a rule that satis…es all this... this is Arrows Impossibility Theorem. 54 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity If you were to vote, which social welfare function would you want? The most simple is the egalitarian rule, which gives everybody the exact same endowment. Jeremy Bentham, John Stewart Mills and other utilitarian philosophers suggest our goal should be to maximize the sum of people’s utilities W = U1 + U2 + ... + Un . 55 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity Or we could generalize this and give di¤erent people di¤erent weights in a generalized utilitarian welfare function W = α1 U1 + α2 U2 + ... + αn Un . Rawls suggested that we should seek to maximize the utility of the least well o¤ in society, the Rawlsian welfare function is W = min(U1 , U2 , ..., Un ) 56 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity Depending on what social welfare function we seek to maximize, society might prefer an ine¢ cient allocation to an e¢ cient one. If allocation a gives Bill Gates $1, 000, 000, 000 and 9 get nothing, it is Pareto e¢ cient. But surely society would prefer allocation b where all 10 people get $100, 000 Pareto e¢ ciency ;equity 57 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity A distortion is anything that prevents people from maximizing their welfare. Market power, incomplete information, externalities, public goods are distortions These will lead to ine¢ ciency 58 / 61 E¢ ciency and Equity If we are in a competitive economy with no distortions, it is …rst-best and any distortion will decrease e¢ ciency. We shouldn’t tax a distortion free economy But if an economy has at least two distortions, correcting one might increase welfare. This is the theory of second best. 59 / 61 Summary What is the di¤erence between general and partial equilibrium? What is Pareto e¢ ciency? What is the contract curve? In an exchange economy, equilibrium will occur where? In a competitive economy, equilibrium will occur where? In an economy with production, equilibrium will occur where? 60 / 61 Summary What are Adam Smith’s …rst and second welfare theorems? What is Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem? What is the theory of second best? 61 / 61