Notes for Behavioral Sciences

Behavioral Sciences 1: Biology and Behavior Researchers Franz Gall: (1758 – 1828). Phrenology Pierre Flourens: (1794 – 1867). Functions of major sections of the brain. Used extirpation to study parts of brain. William James (1842 – 1910). Functionalism: How mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment. John Dewey: (1859 – 1952). Functionalism Brain Organization * See appendix for full diagram Hindbrain: Cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation. Midbrain: Inferior and superior colliculi. Forebrain Thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebral cortex. Methods Electroencephalography (EEG). Regional cerebral of Study: blood flow. Paul Broca: (1824 – 1880). Studied people with legions in specific regions of brain. Broca’s Area: Speech production. Hermann von (1821 – 1894). Speed of impulse. Made psychology a Helmholtz: science. Sir Charles (1857 – 1952). Synapses Sherrington: Sigmund Freud: (1856 – 1939). Psychoanalytic perspective. Nervous System Organization Neurons: Sensory: Afferent, receptors ® spinal cord Interneurons: Between other neurons. Mainly CNS. Motor: Efferent, CNS ® muscles & glands Reflex Arcs: Interneurons in spinal cord relay info to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain. Central Nervous CNS. Brain and spinal cord. System: Peripheral PNS. Nervous tissue and fibers outside CNS Nervous System: Somatic: Voluntary Autonomic: Sympathetic = F/F, parasympathetic = R/D. Forebrain Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information. Hypothalamus: Homeostasis & the 4 F’s. Integrates with endocrine system. Hypothalamus ® hypophyseal portal ® anterior pituitary Basal Ganglia: Smooths movements and helps postural stability. Limbic System: Septal Nuclei: Pleasure and addiction. Amygdala: Fear and aggression. Hippocampus: Emotion and memory. Cerebral Four lobes Cortex: Frontal: Executive function, impulse control, speech, motor. Parietal: Touch, pressure, temp, pain, spatial processing. Occipital: Visual Temporal: Sound, speech perception, memory, emotion. Cerebral Left is analytic, language, logic, math. Usually dominant Hemispheres: Right is intuition, creativity, spatial processing. Influences of Behavior Neurotransmitters: Released by neurons to carry a signal. Acetylcholine: Used by somatic nervous system to move muscles. Also used by the parasympathetic and CNS. Dopamine: Maintains smooth movements and steady posture. Endorphins & Natural pain killers. Enkephalins: Epinephrine & Maintain wakefulness and mediate F/F responses. Norepinephrine: Epinephrine tends to act as a hormone, norepinephrine a neurotransmitter. g -aminobutyric Inhibitory neurotransmitters. Act as brain Acid (GABA): “stabilizers”. Glycine serves a similar function. Glutamate: Acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter. Serotonin: Modulates mood, sleep, eating, and dreaming. The endocrine system is tied to the nervous system through the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary, and a few other hormones: Development The nervous system develops through neurulation, in which the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating a neural tube topped with neural crest cells Neural Tube: Becomes the CNS Neural Crest Cells: Spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues. Primitive Reflexes: Exist in infants and should disappear with age. Rooting Reflex: Turns head toward stimulus. Moro Reflex: Extends arms, response to falling sensation. Babinski Reflex: Big toe is extended and other toes fan out in response to brushing on sole of foot. Grasping Reflex: Grabs anything put into hands. Cortisol: Stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex. Developmental Milestones Testosterone & Mediate libido. Testosterone also #aggressive Estrogen: behavior. Both are produced in gonads, released by ¥ Gross and fine motor abilities progress head to toe and core to periphery adrenal cortex. ¥ Social skills shift from parent-oriented to other-oriented Epinephrine & Released by adrenal medulla and cause physiological ¥ Language skills become increasingly complex Norepinephrine: changes associated with the sympathetic nervous system. Behavioral Sciences 2: Sensation and Perception Definitions Hearing Sensory Receptors: Sensory nerves that respond to stimuli. Outer Ear: Pinna (auricle), external auditory canal, tympanic membrane. Sensory Ganglia: Collection of cell bodies outside the CNS. Middle Ear: Connected to nasal cavity by Eustachian tube. Ossicles: Acronym MIS and HAS. Malleus: Hammer Incus: Anvil Stapes: Stirrup. Footplate of stapes rests in the oval window of cochlea. Projection Areas: Areas in the brain that analyze sensory input. Absolute Threshold: The min of stimulus energy that will activate a sensory system. Threshold of The minimum stimulus energy that will create a Conscious Perception: signal large enough in size and long enough in Inner Ear: Bony Labyrinth: Filled with perilymph. Membranous Labyrinth: Filled with endolymph. Membranous labyrinth consists of cochlea (sound), utricle & saccule (linear acceleration) and semicircular canals (rotational acceleration & balance). duration to be brought into awareness. Difference Threshold: The min difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference. Weber’s Law: Just Noticeable Difference (JND) for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus. Projection Areas: Superior Olive: Localizes sound. Located in brain stem. Inferior Colliculus: Startle reflex. Also used by both eyes and ears in the vestibulo-ocular reflex which keeps the eyes fixed on a single point as the head rotates. Signal Detection Refers to the effects of nonsensory factors, such Theory: as experiences, motives, and expectations on perception of stimuli. Accounts for response bias. Adaptation: Refers to a ¯ or " in sensitivity to a stimulus. Vision Cornea: Gathers and filters incoming light. Iris: Controls size of pupil. Colored part of eye. Divides front of the eye into the anterior & posterior chamber. It contains 2 muscles, the dilator and constrictor pupillae. Auditory Pathway Lens: Refracts incoming light to focus it on the retina. cochlea Aqueous Produced by the ciliary body. Nourishes the eye and gives Humor: the eye its shape. Drains through the canal of Schlemm. Retina: Rods: Detect light / dark. Contain rhodopsin. Cones: Color. Short / medium / long. Cones are in the fovea, which is part of the macula. Pathway from retina: Rods/Cones ® bipolar cells ® ganglion cells ® optic nerve Support: Vitreous on inside. Sclera and choroid on outside. Processing: Parallel Processing: Color, form, and motion at same time. Magnocellular Cells: Motion. High temporal resolution. Parvocellular Cells: Shape. High spatial resolution. auditory cortex Other Senses Retinal Disparity: Space between eyes; allows for binocular vision and depth. Horizontal & Integrates signals from ganglion cells and performs edgeAmacrine Cells: sharpening. vestibulocochlear nerve medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) Smell: The detection of volatile or aerosolized chemicals by the olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves) in the olfactory epithelium. Smell info bypasses the thalamus. Pheromones: Chemicals given off by animals that have an effect on social foraging, and sexual behavior. Taste: The detection of dissolved compounds by taste buds in papillae. Sweet/sour/salty/bitter/umamai. Somatosensation: Refers to the four touch modalities: Pressure, vibration, pain, temperature. Two-Point Threshold: Minimum distance necessary between 2 points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli. Physiological Zero: The normal temp of skin to which objects are compared to. Nociceptors: Pain reception. Gate theory of pain. ¯JND for pain. Kinesthetic Sense: Proprioception Object Recognition Top-Down The recognition of an object by memories and expectations. Processing: Little attention to detail. Uses background knowledge. Visual Pathway eye optic nerves optic tracts visual radiations optic chiasm lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) visual cortex Bottom-Up Details ® whole. Recognition of objects by feature Processing: detection. Not influenced by background knowledge. Gestalt Proximity, similarity, continuity, closure. All are governed by Principles: the Law of Prägnanz. Behavioral Sciences 3: Learning and Memory Learning Habituation: Becoming used to a stimulus. Operant (instrumental): Experimenter arranges relationship between a stimulus (the reinforcer) and a response. E.g. bar press Þ food Dishabituation: When a 2nd stimulus intervenes causing a resensitization of the original stimulus. Associative Learning: Pairing together stimuli / responses or behaviors / consequences. Operant Conditioning: Behavior is changed through the use of consequences. Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior. Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior. Schedule: The schedule of reinforcement can be based on an amount of time or a ratio of behavior / reward, and can be either fixed or variable. Positive Response: Adding something. Negative Response: Removing something. Extinction: When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, it goes extinct. Shaping: In operant conditioning, shaping is a when behavior that is closer and closer to the target behavior is reinforced. Classical (Pavlovian): Experimenter arranges a relationship between two stimuli (CS and US). E.g. tone Þ food Classical Conditioning: With repetition, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response. Observational Learning The acquisition of behavior by watching others. or Modeling: Memory Encoding: The process of putting new info into memory. It can be automatic or effortful. Semantic encoding is stronger than both acoustic and visual encoding. Sensory & Short Term Transient and based on neurotransmitter activity. Memory: Working Memory: Requires STM, attention, and executive function to manipulate information. Long Term Memory: Requires elaborate rehearsal and is the result of increased neuronal connectivity. Explicit (declarative) Memory: Accounts for memories that we must consciously recall with effort and focus. Implicit (nondeclaritive) Memory: Accounts for acquired skills and conditioned responses to circumstances and stimuli. Semantic Networks: Stores facts. Concepts are linked together based on similar meaning. Certain triggers will activate associated memories. Retrieval: Recognition of info is stronger than recall. Retrieval is often based on priming interconnected nodes of the semantic network. Diseases: Alzheimers: Degenerative brain disorder linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus. Causes dementia and memory loss. Korsakoff’s Syndrome: Memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. Causes retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Another symptom is confabulation, the fabrication of vivid but fake memories. Agnosia: Loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds. Usually caused by physical damage to brain. Interference: Retroactive Interference: New memories make you forget old memories. Proactive Interference: Old memories interfere with learning new memories. Human Memory Sensory Memory < 1 sec Short-term Memory (working memory) <1 min Long-term Memory Life-time Explicit Memory Conscious Implicit Memory Unconscious Declarative Memory Facts, events Procedural Memory Skills, tasks Episodic Memory Events, experiences Semantic Memory Facts, concepts Behavioral Sciences 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Cognition Language Information The brain encodes, stores, and retrieves info much like a Processing Model: computer. Piaget’s Stages: Involve schemas and assimilation vs. accommodation. Sensorimotor: 0 ® 2 yrs. Child manipulates the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions. Object permanence develops at the end of this stage. Preoperational: 2 ® 7 yrs. Pretend play, symbolic thinking so they learn to talk, egocentrism & centration. Concrete Operational: 7 ® 11 yrs. Understands the feelings of others. Conservation develops. Math. Formal Operational: 11 years and older. Abstract thought and problem solving. Moral reasoning. Problem-Solving Types: Trial-and-Error Algorithms Deductive Reasoning: Form conclusions from rules. Inductive Reasoning: Form conclusions from evidence. Mental Set: A pattern of approach for a given problem. Functional The tendency to use objects only in the way they are Fixedness: normally utilized. Creates barriers to problem-solving. Heuristics: “Rules of thumb” Availability Heuristic: When we make our decisions based on how easily Phonology: The actual sound of speech. Morphology: The building blocks of words. Semantics: The meaning of words. Syntax: Rules dictating word order. Pragmatics: Changes in language delivery depending on context. Theories of Nativist (biological) Theory: Language acquisition is Language innate. Development: Learning (behaviorist) Theory: Language acquisition is controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers. Social Interactionist Theory: Language acquisition is caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others. Whorfian Linguistic Relativity. The lens by which we view and Hypothesis: interpret the world is created by language. Broca’s Area: Produces speech Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension Arcuate Fasciculus: Connects Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area. Aphasia: Language deficit Broca’s Aphasia: Difficult to generate speech. Wernicke’s Aphasia: Lack of comprehension. Conduction Aphasia: Can’t repeat words. similar instances can be imagined. Representativeness The tendency to make decisions about actions / events Heuristic: based on our standard representations of the events. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against those beliefs. Gardner’s Theory of 7 areas of intelligence: Linguistic, logicalMultiple mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodilyIntelligences: kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal. Consciousness Alertness: State of being awake and thinking. EEG shows BETA waves when alert or concentrating, ALPHA waves when awake but tired, eyes closed. BETA: #freq ¯amp; ALPHA: Synchronous Sleep: More info on right Hypnosis: Individuals appear to be in normal control of their faculties but are in a highly suggestible state. Used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement. Meditation: Quieting of the mind. Used for relief of anxiety. Consciousness-Altering Drugs Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines. They #GABA. Stimulants: Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy. #Dopamine, #norepinephrine, #serotonin at synaptic cleft. Opiates & Opioids: Heroin, morphine, opium, oxycodone & hydrocodone. Can cause death by respiratory depression. Hallucinogens: LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine. Mesolimbic Mediates drug addiction. Includes nucleus accumbens, Pathway: medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area. Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter. Sleep Beta – Alpha – Theta – Delta BAT-D mnemonic for sequential order of brain waves. Stage 1: Light sleep. THETA waves Stage 2: Slightly deeper. THETA waves, sleep spindles, K complexes. ¯heart rate, ¯respiration, ¯temperature. Stages 3 & 4 Deep sleep. DELTA waves. Slow-wave sleep (SWS). Most sleep disorders occur during stage 3 & 4 nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Growth hormone released. Rapid Eye Mvmt: REM sleep. The mind appears awake on EEG, but the person is asleep. Eye movements and body paralysis. Mostly BETA waves. Sleep Cycle: 90 min. Stages: 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or 1-2-3-4-REM Circadian 24 hours. Melatonin triggers sleepiness. Cortisol Rhythm: promotes wakefulness Dreaming: Mostly during REM. Activation- Dreams result from brain activation during REM Synthesis Theory: sleep. Activation in brainstem, synthesis in cortex. Sleep Disorders: Dyssomnias: Difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep. Insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea. Parasomnias: Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. Night terrors, sleepwalking. Alertness Selective Attention: Allows one to pay attention to particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention. Divided Attention: Uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time. Behavioral Sciences 5: Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Motivation Motivation: The purpose, or driving force, behind our actions Can be extrinsic or intrinsic. Instincts: Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli. Instinct Theory: People perform certain behaviors because of their evolutionarily programmed instincts. Arousal: The state of being awake and reactive to stimuli. Optimal Arousal Optimal performance requires optimal arousal. Arousal Theory: levels that are too ! or too ¯ will impede performance. Drives: Internal states of tension that beget particular behaviors focused on goals. Primary drives: related to biological processes. Secondary drives: stem from learning. Drive Reduction Motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives, Theory: which create uncomfortable internal states. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Physiological, safety and security, love and belonging, Needs: self-esteem, and self-actualization. Higher needs only produce drives once lower needs are met. Stress Stress: The physiological and cognitive response to challenges or life changes. Stress Appraisal: Primary Appraisal: Classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. Secondary Appraisal: Evaluating if the organism can cope with the stress. Stressors: Anything that leads to a stress response. Can lead to distress or eustress. General Adaptation Specific stressors do not have specific responses, Syndrome: they all generate the same general physical stress response. 3 stages of stress: Alarm, resistance, exhaustion. These involve both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system; release of ACTH leads to !cortisol. Self-Actualization: Full realization of one’s talents and potential. Self-Determination Emphasizes 3 universal needs: autonomy, competence, Theory: and relatedness. Incentive Theory: Explains motivation as the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments. Expectancy-Value The amount of motivation for a task is based on the Theory: expectation of success and the value of that success. Opponent-Process Explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases, Theory: the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms. House Money Effect: After a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one's own. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Selfactualization Esteem Love / Belonging Safety Physiological Gambler’s Fallacy: If something happens more frequently than normal, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa. Prisoner’s Dilemma: Two people act out of their own self-interest, but if they had cooperated, the result would have been even better. Emotion Emotion: A state of mind, or feeling, that is subjectively experienced based on circumstances, mood, and relationships Three Components of Cognitive: Subjective Emotion: Physiological: Changes in autonomic nervous system Behavioral: Facial expressions and body language 7 Universal Emotions: Happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust and anger James-Lange Theory: Behavioral and physiological actions lead to emotions. Ex: Power posing. Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotional and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously. They arise from separate and independent areas of the brain. Schacter-Singer Theory: Two-factor theory of emotion. Physiological arousal and interpretation of context or “cognitive label” lead to emotion. Limbic System: Concerned with instincts and mood. See appendix for full diagram. Theories of Emotion Behavioral Sciences 6: Identity and Personality Self-Concept & Identity Personality Self-Concept: The sum of ways we describe ourselves. Identities: Individual components of our self-concept related to the group to which we belong. Self-Esteem: The closer our actual self is to our ideal self and our ought self (who others want us to be), the ! our self-esteem. Self-Efficacy: The degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or situation. Learned Helplessness: A state of hopelessness that results from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli. Locus of Control: Internal: We control our own success/failure External: Outside factors have more control Formation of Identity Freud: Psychosexual stages of personality development based on tensions caused by the libido. Failure at any stage leads to fixation which causes personality disorder. 0 ® 1 Oral 1 ® 3 Anal 3 ® 6 Phallic 6 ® puberty Latent Puberty ® Adult Genital Erikson: Stages stem from conflicts throughout life. 0®1 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 1®3 2. Autonomy vs. Shame 3®6 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 6 ® 12 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 12 ® 20 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 20 ® 40 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 40 ® 65 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 65 ® death 8. Integrity vs. Despair Kohlberg: Stages based on moral dilemmas. 6 stages in 3 phases. Example: Mr. Heinz dilemma. Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development: The skills that a child has not yet mastered and require a more knowledgeable other to accomplish. Imitation & Common ways children learn from others. Role-Taking Reference Group: The group to which we compare ourselves. Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development Post-conventional “Just because the law says to do it doesn’t mean it is ethical!” Conventional “You need to drive slower because the law says so!” Pre-conventional “I must share this toy because if I don’t, then I will get in trouble.” Psychoanalytic Personality results from unconscious urges & desires. Perspective: Freud, Jung, Adler, and Horney. Freud’s Theory: Id: Base urges of survival and reproduction. Superego: The idealist and perfectionist. Ego: Mediator between the two and the conscious mind. The ego uses defense mechanisms to ¯stress. All three operate, at least in part, in the unconscious. Jung: Collective unconscious links all humans together. Personality is influenced by archetypes. Adler & Horney: Unconscious is motivated by social urges. Humanistic Emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as Perspective: they strive for happiness and self-realization. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Rogers’s unconditional positive regard flow from the humanistic view of personality. Type & Trait Personality can be described by identifiable traits that Theory: carry characteristic behaviors. Type Theories: Ancient Greek humors, Sheldon’s somatotypes, divisions into Type A and Type B, and Myers-Briggs Type Inventory. Trait Theories: PEN: Psychoticism (nonconformity), extraversion (sociable), neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations). Big Five: Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. OCEAN mnemonic. 3 Basic Traits: Cardinal traits (traits around which a person organizes their life), central traits (major characteristics of personality), secondary traits (more personal characteristics and limited in occurrence). Social Individuals react with their environment in a cycle called Cognitive reciprocal determinism. People mold their environments Perspective: according to their personality, and those environments in turn shape their thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Behaviorist Our personality develops as a result of operant Perspective: conditioning. E.g. it is reward and punishment based. Biological Behavior can be explained as a result of genetic Perspective: expression. Behavioral Sciences 7: Psychological Disorders Types of Psych Disorders Understanding Psych Disorders Behaviorist Approach: Schizophrenia: Prototypical disorder with psychosis. Positive Symptoms: Add something to behavior, cognition or affect. Such as delusions or hallucinations. Biomedical Approach: Negative Symptoms: The loss of something. Such as disturbances of affect and avolition. Depressive Include major depressive disorder and seasonal affective Disorders: disorder. Major Dep Disorder: At least 1 major depressive episode. Persistent Dep Disorder: Dysthymia for at least 2 years that doesn’t meet criteria for Major Depressive Disorder. Seasonal Affective Disorder: Depression occurring in winter. Anxiety Disorders: Generalized anxiety disorder, phobias, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and panic disorder. Obsessive- Obsessions: Persistent, intrusive thoughts & impulses. Compulsive Disorder: Compulsions: Repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause impairment in a person’s life. Body Dysmorphic Unrealistic negative evaluation of one’s appearance. Disorder: PTSD: Intrusive symptoms such as flashbacks, nightmares. Avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms & arousal symptoms. Dissociative Dissociative Amnesia: Can’t recall past experiences. Disorders: Dissociative Fugue: Assumption of a new identity. Takes into account only physical and medical causes. Biopsychosocial Considers relative contributions of biological, Approach: psychological, and social components. Psychodynamic Related to Freud’s psychoanalysis. Approach: DSM-5: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition. Categorizes mental disorders based on symptoms. Bipolar and Related Manic or hypomanic episodes. Disorders: Bipolar I: At least one manic episode. Bipolar II: At least one hypomanic episode & at least one major depressive episode. Cyclothymic Disorder: Hypomanic episodes with dysthymia. Classical and operant conditioning shapes the disorder. Biological Basis Schizophrenia: Genetic factors, birth trauma, marijuana use, family history. Depression: !glucocorticoids, ¯norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. Bipolar !norepinephrine and serotonin. Also heritable. Disorders: Alzheimer’s: Genetic factors, brain atrophy, ¯acetylcholine, senile plaques of b-amyloid. Parkinson’s: Bradykinesia, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity, and a shuffling gait. ¯dopamine Dissociative Identity Disorder: Multiple personalities. Depersonalization / Derealization Disorder: Feeling detached from the mind and body, or environment. Somatic Symptom & Involve significant bodily symptoms. Related Disorders: Somatic Symptom Disorder: “Somatoform disorder”. A somatic symptom causes disproportionate concern. Illness Anxiety Disorder: Preoccupation with thoughts about having or coming down with illness. Conversion Disorder: Associated with prior trauma, involves unexplained symptoms resulting in loss of body function. Hypochondriasis: “Illness Anxiety Disorder”. One strongly believes he or she has a serious illness despite few or no symptoms. Personality Patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that cause distress Disorders: or impaired function. Cluster A: “weird” - Paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid. Cluster B: “wild” - antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic. Cluster C: “worried” – avoidant, dependent, OC. Personality Disorder Clusters “Weird” “Wild” “Worried” Behavioral Sciences 8: Social Processes, Attitudes, and Behavior Group Psychology Social Facilitation: Describes the tendency of people to perform at a different level when others are around. Deindividuation: A loss of self-awareness in large groups. Bystander Effect: When in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need. Peer Pressure: The social influence placed on individuals by others they consider equals. Social Loafing: An individual does not pull his or her weight in a group setting. Polarization: The tendency toward making decisions in a group that are more extreme. Groupthink: The tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas. Culture: The beliefs, ideas, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society. Assimilation: The process by which an immigrant or minority takes up elements of mainstream culture. Assimilation is a specific type of socialization. To experience assimilation, a person must first have their own culture, then absorb elements of a new culture. Multiculturalism: The encouragement of multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity. Subcultures: A group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture. Attitudes & Behavior Attitudes: Tendencies toward expression of positive or negative feelings or evaluations of something. Attitude has 3 components: Affective, behavioral, and cognitive. Functional Attitudes States that there are four functional areas of Theory: attitudes: knowledge, ego expression, adaptability, and ego defense. Learning Theory: States that attitudes are developed through forms of learning: direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning. Elaboration States that attitudes are formed and changed through Likelihood Model: different routes of information processing based on degree of elaboration: central route processing, peripheral route processing. Social Cognitive States that attitudes are formed through watching Theory: others, personal factors, and the environment. People change their behavior or attitudes based on observation. Socialization Socialization: The process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society. Sanctions: Positive: A reward for a certain behavior. Negative: A punishment for a certain behavior. Formal Sanction: An official reward or punishment. Informal Sanction: A sanction that is not enforced or punished by an authority but that occurs in everyday interactions with other people. Ex: Asking someone to lower their voice in a movie theater. Norms: Determine the boundaries of acceptable behavior within a society. Mores: Informal norms with major importance for society and, if broken, can result in severe sanctions. Ex: Drug abuse is not socially acceptable. “Right / Wrong” Folkways: Informal norms that are less significant, yet they still shape our everyday behavior. Ex: Holding a door open for someone. “Right / Rude” Taboos: Considered unacceptable by almost every culture (like cannibalism or incest). Stigma: The extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences form the rest of society. Deviance: Violation of norms, rules, or expectations in a society. Differential Deviance can be learned through our interactions with Association Theory: others. People commit crimes, at least in part, because of their associations with other people. Conformity: Changing beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society. Compliance: When individuals change their behavior based on the requests of others. Obedience: A change in behavior based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure. Behavioral Sciences 9: Social Interaction Elements of Social Interaction Status: A position in society used to classify individuals. Ascribed Status: Involuntarily assigned to an individual based on race, gender, ethnicity, etc. Achieved Status: Voluntarily earned by an individual. Master Status: The status by which an individual is primarily identified. Role: A set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the expectations of a certain status in a social situation. Role Performance: Refers to carrying out behaviors of a given role. Role Partner: Another individual who helps define a specific role within the relationship. Role Set: A set of all roles that are associated with a status. Role Conflict: Difficulty managing MULTIPLE roles. Role Strain: Difficulty managing JUST ONE role. Groups: 2 or more people with similar characteristics that share a sense of unity. Peer Group: A self-selected group formed around shared interests. Family Group: Group to which you are born, adopted or married. Kinship: Affinal Kinship: Individuals that are related by choice. E. g. marriage. Consanguineous Kinship: Related through blood In-Group: The group you are in. Out-Group: Group you compete with or oppose. Reference Group: Group you compare yourself to. Primary Group: Those that contain strong emotional bonds. Secondary Group: Often temporary. Contain weaker bonds overall. Gemeinschaft: Community Gesellschaft: Society Groupthink: Occurs when members begin to conform to one another’s views and ignore outside perspectives. Network: An observable pattern of social relationships between individuals or groups. Organization: A group with identifiable membership that engages in certain action to achieve a common purpose. Bureaucracy: A rational system of administration, discipline, and control. Max Weber gave it six defining characteristics. Iron Law of Democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to Oligarchy: being ruled by an elite group. Sect: A religious group that arose from a split from a larger religion. Self-Preservation and Interacting w/ Others Basic Model of States that there are universal emotions and Expressing Emotions: expressions that can be understood across cultures. Social Construction Model States that emotions are solely based on the of Expressing Emotion: situational context of social interactions. Display Rules: Unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotions. Impression Refers to the maintenance of a public image, which Management: is accomplished through various strategies: Flattery, boasting, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, alter-casting. Dramaturgical People create images of themselves in the same way Approach: that actors perform a role in front of an audience. Front Stage: Where you are seen by an audience. Back Stage: You are not in front of the audience. Verbal Communication: Communicating through spoken, written, or signed words. Nonverbal Communicating through means other than the use Communication: of words. Examples: Body language, prosody, gestures. Animal Takes place not only between nonhuman animals, Communication: but between humans and other animals as well. Animals use body language, facial expressions, visual displays, scents, and vocalizations to communicate. Behavioral Sciences 10: Social Thinking Social Behavior Interpersonal Is what makes people like each other. Influenced by Attraction: physical attractiveness, similarity of thoughts and physical traits, self-disclosure, reciprocity, & proximity. Aggression: A physical, verbal, or nonverbal behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase social dominance. Attachment: An emotional bond to another person. Usually refers to the bond between a child and caregiver. Secure Requires a consistent caregiver. Child shows a strong Attachment: preference for the caregiver compared to strangers. Avoidant Occurs when a caregiver has little or no response to a Attachment: distressed child. Child shows no preference for the caregiver compared to strangers. Ambivalent Occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response Attachment: to a child’s distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectful. Child will become distressed when caregiver leaves and is ambivalent when he or she returns. Disorganized Occurs when a caregiver is erratic or abusive; the child Attachment: shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver’s absence or presence. Social Support: The perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network. Emotional Listening to, affirming, and empathizing with Support: someone’s feelings. Esteem Support: Affirms the qualities and skills of the person. Material Support: Providing physical or monetary support. Informational Providing useful information to a person. Support: Network Support: Providing a sense to belonging to a person. Foraging: Searching for and exploiting food resources. Mating System: Describes the way in which a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior. Monogamy: Exclusive mating relationships. Polygamy: One member of a sex having multiple exclusive relationships with members of the opposite sex. Polygyny: Male with multiple females. Polyandry: Female with multiple males. Promiscuity: No exclusivity. Mate Choice: (Intersexual selection). The selection of a mate based on attraction and traits. Altruism: A helping behavior in which the person’s intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him or herself. Game Theory: Attempts to explain decision making between individuals as if they are participating in a game Inclusive Fitness: A measure of an organism’s success in the population based on how well it propagates ITS OWN genes. Inclusive fitness also includes the ability of those offspring to then support others. Social Perception & Behavior Social Perception: (Social cognition). The way by which we generate impressions about people in our social environment. It contains a perceiver, target and situation. Social Capital: The practice of developing and maintaining relationships that form social networks willing to help each other Implicit Personality When we look at somebody for the first time, we pick Theory: up on one of their characteristics. We then take that characteristic and assume other traits about the person based off of that one characteristic we first picked up on Cognitive Biases: Primacy effect, recency effect, reliance on central traits, halo effect, just-world hypothesis, self-serving bias. Attribution Theory: Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people’s behavior. Dispositional: Internal. Causes of a behavior are internal. Situational: External. Surroundings or context cause behavior. Correspondent Focuses on the intentionality of a person’s behavior. Inference Theory: When someone unexpectedly does something that either helps or hurts us, we form a dispositional attribution; we correlate the action to the person’s personality. Fundamental The bias toward making dispositional attributions Attribution Error: rather than situational attributions in regard to the actions of others. Attribution Occurs when individuals must make judgments that Substitution: are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or heuristic. Actor-Observer Bias: Tendency to attribute your own actions to external causes and others’ actions to dispositional causes. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Stereotypes: Cognitive. Occur when attitudes and impressions are made based on limited and superficial information. Self-Fulfilling When stereotypes lead to expectations and those Prophecy: expectations create conditions that lead to confirmation of the stereotype. Stereotype Concern or anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype Threat: about one’s social group. Prejudice: Affective. An irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience. Ethnocentrism: Refers to the practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one’s own culture. Cultural Refers to the recognition that social groups and cultures Relativism: should be studied on their own terms. Discrimination: Behavioral. When prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others. Behavioral Sciences 11: Social Structure and Demographics Sociology: Theories & Institutions Functionalism: Focuses on the function of each part of society. Manifest Functions: Deliberate actions that serve to help a given system. Latent Functions: Unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized consequences of manifest actions. Conflict Theory: Based on the works of Karl Marx. Conflict Theory focuses on how power differentials are created and contribute to maintaining social order. It explains how groups compete for resources to attain power or superiority. Conflict Sociology: The study of the way that distinct groups compete for resources. Symbolic The study of the ways individuals interact through a Interactionism: shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols. The “meaning” of social symbols. Microsociology: The study of expressions, symbolic gestures, and other small, individual components of a society. Social Explores the ways in which individuals and groups make Constructionism: decisions to agree upon a given social reality. The “value” they place on certain social constructs. Social constructivism focuses on altering that constructed view. Rational Choice States that individuals will make decisions that maximize Theory: benefit and minimize harm. Expectancy Theory applies rational choice theory within groups. Feminist Theory: Explores the ways in which one gender can be subordinated. Social Well-established social structures that dictate certain Institutions: patterns of behavior or relationships. 4 Tenets of Beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for autonomy, and Medicine: justice. Culture Culture: Encompasses the lifestyle of a group of people. Material Culture: Refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. Symbolic Culture: Includes the ideas associated with a cultural group. Cultural Lag: The idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture. Language: Spoken or written symbols combined into a system. Value: What a person deems important in life. Belief: Something a person considers to be true. Ritual: Formal ceremonial behavior usually includes symbolism. Norms: Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. Demographics Demographics: Statistics of populations. Most common are ageism, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and immigration. Fertility Rate: Average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population. Birth & Mortality Usually measured as the number of births or deaths per Rate: 1000 people per year. Migration: The movement of people from one location to another. Ethnic Migrants: Ethnic groups emigrating to more industrialized countries tend to have !fertility and !mortality compared to the industrialized nation’s population. Demographic A model used to represent drops in birth and death Transition: rates as a result of industrialization. Social Movements: Organized to either promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change. Globalization: The process of integrating a global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets. Urbanization: The process of dense areas of population creating a pull for migration. Behavioral Sciences 12: Social Stratification Social Class Social The system by which society ranks categories of people Stratification: into a hierarchy. Epidemiology and Disparities Incidence: The # of new cases of a disease per population at risk. Prevalence: The # of cases of a disease per population. Functionalism: States that social stratification is necessary and results Mortality: Deaths caused by a given disease. from the need for those with special intelligence, knowledge, and skills to be a part of the most important Ethnic Migrants: Ethnic groups emigrating to more industrialized countries professions and occupations. A harmonious equilibrium. tend to have !fertility and !overall mortality compared to the industrialized nation’s population. Socioeconomic Ascribed Status: Involuntary, derives from clearly Status: identifiable characteristics such as age and gender. Morbidity: The burden or degree of illness associated with a given Achieved Status: Acquired through direct, individual disease. efforts. Affordable Care (ACA). Attempts to increase health insurance coverage Social Class: A category of people with shared socioeconomic Act: rates and reduce the cost of health care. characteristics. Medicare: Covers people greater than 65 years old, those with endPrestige: Respect and importance tied to specific occupations or stage renal disease, and those with ALS. associations. Medicaid: Covers patients in significant financial need. Power: The capacity to influence people. Anomie: Lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between individuals and society. Strain Theory: Focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance, and in turn reinforce social stratification. Social Capital: Benefits provided by social networks. Or, the investment people make in their society in return for rewards. Meritocracy: Advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement. Social Mobility: Allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities by achieving required credentials and experience. Poverty: In the USA, the poverty line is determined by the government’s calculation of the minimum income required for the necessities of life. Absolute: When one can’t acquire basic life necessities. Relative: When one is poor in comparison to a larger population. Ex: “Anyone who earns less than 60% of the median income is poor.” It is relative to the population, not based a hard number value. Relative People seek to acquire something that others possess Deprivation Theory: and which they believe they should have too. They are not necessarily poor, but they may perceive that they are lacking resources or money. It is all relative. Social The passing on of social inequality, especially poverty, Reproduction: from one generation to the next. Social Exclusion: A sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society. Spatial Inequality: Social stratification across territories. Globalization: Integrating one’s economy to include foreign societies. Has led to increased poverty as production shifts to cheaper labor markets.