Meaning OF Secondary Activities

MEANING OF SECONDARY ACTIVITIES Secondary Activities Industries which are involved in making more valuable and useful goods from the products of primary activities such as agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining are called secondary activities. Manufacturing of cloth from cotton; sugar from sugarcane etc. are the examples of secondary activities. Secondary Production Related Occupations - Under these businesses, the natural resources are not directly utilized, but they are cleaned, refined or changed to make them usable. This increases their value. Such as making steel machines or other items by dissolving iron, making flour or flour from wheat, making cloth from cotton or wool or silk, making furniture from wood, making paper etc. The industries that manufacture these goods are called 'secondary occupations'. All types of manufacturing industries are included under them. A variety of secondary industries have been developed in all countries of the world. These industries are iron - steel, textile, chemical, rubber industry etc. These industries are developed to refine primary goods and make them more useful. CONCEPTS OF SECONDARY ACTIVITIES The occupations which produce finished goods by using the products of primary activities as raw materials are included in secondary activity. Manufacturing of cloth from cotton, sugar from sugarcane and steel from iron ore are important examples of secondary activities. All these are secondary activities because the final product is to be produced not by nature but has to be made by men and therefore, some process of manufacturing is essential. Let us take an example of cloth. Though the primary product, i.e., cotton is produced by nature, but it cannot be used directly by us in this form. So to convert it into usable form some process of manufacturing is essential. This can be done in a factory or at home with simple to Industries which are involved in making more valuable and useful goods from the products of primary activities such as agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining called secondary activities. Manufacturing of clothes from cotton and sugar from sugarcane, etc are the examples of secondary activities, they are called secondary activities because they process and manufacture the primary products into secondary products, thus they represent the secondary stage of activities. CLASSIFICATION AND IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY ACTIVITIES The subject-area of economic geography is as broad as the expansion of human economic activities. Economic activities refer to those actions of human beings that increase the value or form of various goods and increase their ability to satisfy different needs of human beings. The increase in the value of goods comes from their Form, Place and Place Ownership. Three basic requirements of man have been considered, in the absence of which his life becomes difficult. Apart from air and water, these three essential requirements are - Food, Clothing and Shelter. To fulfil these needs, humans have to depend on their own or others' labor. Human beings have to join other people who can manufacture or produce these items of need. These items are either found on the surface of the earth or in the earth itself or they are prepared for human consumption by removing them or adding, 0modifying or refining them. Just as wheat is used to make bread, wheat is produced by agriculture, it is converted into flour to make it useful. The manufacture of furniture is made from wood obtained from forests and wool sheep for woollen textiles and cast iron is used for tools. Iron and Steel Industry: The growth and development of iron and steel industry is a reflection of global economy. It still forms the backbone of the engineering and construction industries. However, it has declined its pre-eminent position it enjoyed in the once-celebrated steel age in the global industrialization phase. However, iron and steel still hold supreme position among metals and products because of their unique basic qualities. The iron and steel industries however, are now building a firm foundation in the developing countries rather than the developed countries. However, the foundation of iron and steel industries depend upon the raw materials used in these industries. There are numerous raw materials used in these industries: 1. Iron Ores: They are of widely variety in Fe content ranging on average from magnetites 72%, haematites 68%, limonites 45% and siderites 36%, with iron stones like taconites also. Haemetite ore is most preferred for steel making. 2. Ferro-alloys: These are chemical compounds. Most important alloys are chromium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, tungsten, vanadium, aluminium, copper, tin, magnesium, lead and zinc. Titanium and zirconium are also used occasionally. 3. Scrap: Scraps hold second position to iron ore among the raw materials of steel industry. Iron scraps derived from dismantled structures of factories, plants, machineries, old vehicles, etc. are recycled and widely used in this industry. 4. Fuels: The most important fuels are coal and coke. Modern blast-furnace use coke. To produce one ton of raw-iron, around 450 tonnes of coke is used. Many iron and steel plants even to-day use charcoal. 5. Electricity: Electricity is required for the production of iron and steel industry. So Hydroelectricity or Thermal power or Atomic power is required. 6. Water: Water is an important raw material for iron and steel industry. It is mainly used to quench coke, to cool blast furnaces, to make steam to coal furnace doors, to operate hydraulic machinery and to have sewage disposal. 7. Air: Air is an important raw material for iron and steel industry. Near about 4 tons of air are required to make a ton of steel. 8. Flux (Limestone and dolomite): Flux is used in the blast-furnace to draw impurities out of the melting ore. Limestone and dolomite combine with the extracted impurities to form slag. 9. Refractories: Both blast and steel furnaces are lined with refractories. Refractories are used for lining furnaces for smelting iron ore. It is also used for lining of the furnaces of locomotives, boilers and making fire bricks. 10. Silica or Sand is used for moulding. The iron and steel industry depicts a changing nature in its growth and production pattern. In the mid-1970s, the relatively developed countries of North America, Western Europe and Japan accounted for nearly two-third of the world’s steel production. But gradually the spatial pattern has changed and attention has now shifted to the developing regions. Towards the end of the last century, the growth of steel production in countries like China, South Korea, Brazil and India has changed the entire pattern of steel production in the world. It becomes clear from the table that China is the leading producer of iron and steel in the world, which accounts for about 23.9 per cent production of pig iron and 17 per cent of crude steel of the world’s production. Japan is the second largest producer with 14.7 per cent pig iron and 13.9 per cent crude steel production of the world. USA once the highest producer now ranks third in the world followed by Russia. India’s position is 9th in the iron and steel production and its production of pig iron and crude steel accounts for 3.9 and 3.6 per cent respectively. 1. China: China is having the oldest system of fabricators of iron, as is evident from its historical records. But until the adoption of her five-year plan in 1953, China had only insignificant iron and steel manufacturing of modern type. Gradually, China has developed the iron and steel industry and now it is the highest producer of iron and steel in the world. At present, China is having following important areas of iron-steel industry: i. Southern Manchuria is the largest steel plant of China at Anshan and other plants at Pensihu and Mukden. ii. Shansi is also an old region of iron and steel production. In this region Taiyuan has been developed as a major steel centre. iii. The Lower Yangtze Valley: In this region Hankow, Shanghai, Hanyang and Chungking are the main centres of iron and steel industry. iv. Other centres are located at Paotow, Chinling Chen, Canton, Singtao and Huangsih. 2. Japan: In spite of the shortage of raw material (iron and coal), Japan has become one of the leading steel producers of the world. After China, Japan is the second largest producer of pig iron and crude steel in the world. In Japan, large-scale concentration of iron and steel industry has occurred in the following regions: i. The Tokyo-Yokohama Region: It is having all facilities required for the growth of ironsteel industry. The reclamation of Tokyo Bay provided large, extensive plane land for steel manufacturing units. The Tokyo-China region is the main area in which steel industrial units have been developed at Hitachi and North Tokyo. ii. Nagoya Region: It contributes about 20 per cent of the Japanese steel production. This region had witnessed a massive growth of industries within the period 1950-60. iii. Osaka-Kobe Region: At the head of the Osaka Bay, a highly industrialised area known as the Kinki has developed. The port of Osaka is the main centre. Other centres of this region are Amagasaki, Kobe, Hemegi, Sakai and Wakayama. iv. Fukuoka-Yamaguchi Region: It is located in the extreme south of Japan within Kyushu and westernmost end of Honshu. The first government steel plant was established at Yawata in 1901. Kita-Kyushu is another notable iron and steel centre of this region. v. Oka-Yamaha Region: It is a new industrial region situated in between Osaka-Kobe and Hiroshima. vi. Hokkaido Region: The main centre of this region is Murroran. A fairly big sized iron and steel industry has developed here depending upon local coal and iron ore. The most striking feature in the locational pattern of Japan’s steel plants is that they are situated either on the Bay-Coast or on some canal or river. 3. United States of America: Once USA was the highest producer of iron and steel but now its rank is third in the world, next to China and Japan. In the US first iron and steel plant was established in 1629 at Massachusetts. The major iron and steel regions in the USA are as follows: i. Appalachian or Pittsburgh Region: The most important of all the regions is the northern Appalachian region of western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio. This district contains about 42.5 per cent of the blast furnace capacity of the country and its centre, Pittsburgh, is the second greatest centre of steel industry in the world. ii. Lake Region: The lake region falls into: a. The Lake Erie ports; Detroit, Cleveland and Buffalo, etc.; b. The centres near the head of Lake Michigan, Chicago-Gary or Calument district; c. The Lake Superior region, Duluth. These districts represent a somewhat different adjustment to the three factors in the localisation of the industry, coal, iron and market. The Lake Erie ports are nearer to the Appalachian coal, but farther from the iron ore than the Duluth region. The Michigan region is midway between the two. One important advantage that all these districts enjoy over the Pittsburgh region is that, owing to their location on the lake shores, one extra handling of iron ore is eliminated. On the other hand, these centres are located a little away from the market. Duluth, for example, has in its immediate hinterland the forest, farm, and the ranching country, with little demand for iron and steel goods. Detroit is the largest steel consuming centre in the USA particularly because of its automobile industry. iii. Atlantic Seaboard Region: On the Atlantic Seaboard, it is only the Middle Atlantic region (New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, etc.) that is important. The chief advantage that this region enjoys is in respect of its location, both in relation to the tidewater, and the proximity to the large industrial centres of the East. The Middle Atlantic region is the only major region in which the production of pig iron and steel is notably greater, in proportion, than the iron ore consumed, because of the relatively larger amounts of scrap available in this highly industrialised region. There are many steel mills in this region which operate without blast furnaces, depending both on scrap and pig iron imported from other areas, particularly the Northern Appalachian region. iv. South Appalachian: In the Southern Appalachians, in Alabama, however, large deposits of these raw materials are found in closer proximity than anywhere else in North America if not the world. While the ore is of low grade and requires shaft mining, much of the rock is lime and the ore is, therefore, self-fluxing. v. Western Region: This region extends from Colorado in the interior to the California on the west. Among the steel region in the USA, this is a new region. The first steel mill, although had been setup in 1882 at Pueblo. 4. Russia-Ukraine (erstwhile USSR): Prior to disintegration in 1991, USSR was the leading steel-producing country of the world. Now also Russia and Ukraine are important iron and steel producers of the world. Russia ranks 4th in the production of pig iron and crude steel, while Ukraine stands 8th in world ranking. The four important iron- and steelproducing regions are: i. Ural Region: It lies on both sides of the Urals. The major steel centres of this region are – Magnitogorsk, Chelyabink, Nizhnitagil, Sverdlovsk, Serov, Perm, Orsk, etc. Magnitogorsk is the largest steel-producing centre of Russia. ii. Kuznetsk or Kuzbas Region: It is located in the north of the Alai Mountains and south of Tomsk. This steel region is coal-based. iii. Moscow Region: Important centres of iron and steel in this region are Tula, Lipetsk, Cherepovetsk and Gorky. iv. Others: Other regions are isolated and developed in various parts. These are Baikal, St. Petersburg, Lower Amer valley and Pacific coastal region. 5. Ukraine: Now, Ukraine is an independent country and has 8th position in world’s production of iron and steel. In this region all the raw materials, i.e., iron ore, coal, limestone, manganese are available for steel production. A dense network of railways and cheap water transport facilitate the growth and development of iron and steel industry. The main centres of iron and steel plants are Krivoirog, Kerch, Zhdanow, Tagarerog, Zaporozhye, Pittsburgh, Dniepropetrovsk, etc.Other notable steel-producing centres of independent countries are Tbilisi, Tashkent and Bogovat in Uzbekistan and Tamir Tan in Kazakhstan. 6. Germany: Before World War I, Germany was the second largest iron and steel producer in the world. It was the largest exporter of steel goods in the world. German iron and steel industry was handicapped since after the war of 1914 by the loss of ore, coal and productive capacity. Germany, however, made a remarkable recovery within a few years, and in spite ofher depleted resources she produced in 1939 more than the 1913 production of steel. The most important centre of iron and steel industry in Germany is the RhenishWestphalia, contributing more than 80 per cent of the steel produced in Germany, and 85 per cent of pig iron. It manufactures a wide variety of specialities. Other regions of importance are the Siegerland Hessen-Nassau, Northern and Central Germany, Saxony, and South Germany. The greatest centre is Essen in the Ruhr valley where the world-famous works of Krupp are situated. 7. South Korea: South Korea is the 6th leading country of the world in iron and steel production. It is the third Asian country after China and Japan which produces highgrade of steel. Its annual production is 24.8 crore tons of pig iron and 43.4 crore tons of crude steel. 8. Brazil: Brazil is the 7th ranking country in iron and steel production in the world. Its annual production is 27.7 crore tons of pig iron and 27.8 crore tons of steel. The consumption of steel within the country is very low. Therefore, Brazil is able to export bulk of her steel production. Most of the steel industries are located around Sao-Paulo and Curumba. Brazil possesses vast amount of iron ore. The largest of these deposits is located near Minas-Gerraes. Another large steel plant is located at Santa Catarina. Most of the mills obtain energy from hydel-power plants. 9. India: India has a long history of the use of iron and steel. However, it was only after the first decade of the 20th century that manufacture of iron and steel as a modern industry made a beginning in this country. It was in 1911 that India’s first iron and steel plant – the Tata Iron and Steel Company Ltd. (TISCO) was set up in Jamshedpur in Bihar in private collaboration with a US firm. Nearly three and a half decades later another plant was launched at Burnpur in neighbouring Bengal — the Indian Iron and Steel Company Ltd. (IISCO) — with British participation. At the commencement of Five-Year Plans (1951) there were three steel plants located at Jamshedpur, Asansol and Bhadravati. Not only capacity of these plants was increased but six integrated plants in public sector have been established at Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Vishakhapatnam and Salem, apart from these more than 140 mini steel plants have also been set up to meet the growing internal demand. India is having the largest iron ore deposits in the world and also having coal, therefore, having very good prospects of the further growth of iron and steel industry. 10. France: Till 1973, France was the 6th largest producer of steel in the world but now its position is 10th. France is the biggest iron ore-producing country of West Europe but there is scarcity of coal. In France, two regions are notable for iron and steel production: i. Lorraine, and ii. Sambre-Meuse. Metz, Briey, Nancy and Longway are notable steel centres of Lorraine region, while ClermountFerrand, Le Creusot, St. Etienne, Lille, Valenciennes, Le Harre and Marseilles are important centres of Sambre-Meuse region. In Saar basin also, steel industry has developed on local coal deposits and iron ore from Lorraine. 11. Great Britain (UK): Great Britain was not only the pioneer but a leading steelproducing country in the world for a long time. But its decline started in the first quarter of the 20th century. Now once again Great Britain has been able to establish itself as one of the important iron- and steel-producing countries and ranks 12th in the world. The main advantage of UK’s iron and steel industry is that most of the centres are well-situated in relation to their coal and ore supplies and also have good facilities of importing raw material and exporting finished goods. The most important steel-producing centres of UK are as follows: i. North East Coast (Middles-borough, near New Castle, is the largest producing centre, and has the most modern equipment in Britain’s industry). ii. Derby, Leicester, etc. iii. South Wales (Cardiff). iv. Lincolnshire. v. West Coast. vi. Scotland (Glasgow). vii. Sheffield and Birmingham (the oldest, but not the most outstanding). viii. Staffordshire. 12. Italy: Italy now has emerged as a leading iron- and steel-producing country not only of Europe but of the world. It ranks 11th in the world’s production of iron and steel. Italy’s annual production is 10.9 crore tons of pig iron and 26.6 crore tons of crude steel. Although Italy is having shortage of both coal and iron ore but it has developed this industry through well-planned management. The major steel plants of Italy are located at Naples, Genoa, Aosta and Trieste. Other than these Poland, Czech Republic, Sweden, Holland, Australia, Canada, Mexico, South America, South Africa, Turkey, North Korea, Iran, Taiwan, Malaysia and Vietnam also have developed iron and steel plants. Cotton Textile Industry: Cotton is the world's most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries. There are five stages in its making into textiles:  Cultivating and Harvesting  Preparatory Processes  Spinning- giving yarn  Weavinggiving fabrics  Finishing- giving textiles Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a ball, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants. The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa, and India. The greatest diversity of wild cotton species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia and Africa. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds. The fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. The use of cotton for fabric is known to date to prehistoric times; fragments of cotton fabric dated from 5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and between 6000 BC and 5000 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the invention of the cotton gin that lowered the cost of production that led to its widespread use, and it is the most widely used natural fiber cloth in clothing today. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, accounting for 2.5% of the world's arable land. China is the world's largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years. In the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters (17 cubic feet) and weigh 226.8 kilograms (500 pounds). Production of Cotton: Cotton cloth is produced in three different sectors viz., Mills, Powerlooms and Handlooms: 1. Mills: The mill sector played a dominant role in cotton textile industry at the initial stage. But its importance was reduced drastically with the growth of powerlooms and handloom. 2. Powerlooms: The decentralized powerloom sector plays a pivotal role in meeting the clothing needs of the country. The production of cloth as well as generation of employment has been rapidly increasing in powerloom sector. This sector not only contributes significantly to the cloth production in the country but also provides employment to millions of people. The power loom industry produces a wide variety of cloth with intricate designs. The powerloom sector accounts for about 63 per cent of the total cloth production in the country and contributes significantly to the export earnings. 3. Handlooms: The handloom sector provides the spun arn and the cotton cloth, altogether. It gives employment to over many persons engaged in weaving and allied activities than the past. This sector constitutes nearly 14 per cent of the total cloth produced in the country like India and also contributes substantially to the export earnings. The production of spun yarn and cotton cloth in India has increased considerably during the 53 years from 1950-51 to 2003-04. The production of spun yarn registered more than fourfold increase from 533 million kg in 1950-51 to 2,121 million kg in 2003-04. Although the total production of cotton cloth increased considerably, the share of mill sector has been drastically reduced. This is an indication of our efforts to decentralise the industry and create greater employment opportunities. Cotton textile industry is quite widespread in the world and as many as 90 countries are producing cotton yarn and/or cloth in varying quantity. But the main concentration of textile industry is limited to few countries. There are two types of production related with cotton textile, one is the production of cotton yarn and another is the production of cotton cloth, although many countries produce both the items. Leading producers of cotton yarn in the world: Apart from the above countries Germany, Portugal, Greece, Uzbekistan, Syria, France, Bangladesh, Turkmenistan and Iran are also notable producers of cotton yarn. The leading producers of cotton cloth in the world are China, India, Russia, USA, Japan, Italy, Germany, Hong Kong, Egypt, France and Romania. Important Producers of Cotton Cloth in the World The other producers of cotton cloth in the world are Brazil, Spain, Pakistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Bolivia, Vietnam, Korea Republic, Czech Republic, Portugal, Belgium, Poland, South Africa and Syria. The cotton textile industry is fairly widespread in the world; however, there are areas of concentration. A brief description of the important areas of cotton textile industry is given here to explain the general pattern of distribution. 1. China: Cotton textile is one of the oldest types of industry in China. Since very old days, weaving and spinning was normal practice of village weavers and most of the output was contributed by cotton industry. Several characteristics of this industry help to explain this locational diversity and concentration. In the first place, there is a ready market for its product. With its vast population, China has a vast domestic market for cheap cotton goods, and its low labour costs, based on its large labour supplies, enable to sell textile abroad. Besides the advantages of local supplies of raw materials, cheap labour, and regional consumer markets the cottongrowing tracts of Manchuria had an additional advantage of having the remarkable coal mines within the state. The first mainland cotton mill was located outside the coastal China – on the cotton-growing region of Manchuria at Tsing Kiang. Owing to its favourable geographical situation large quantities of cotton are grown in Liao River valley. The cotton industry retains its pre-eminence here: in 1949 there were 247 factories and by 1957 about fifty more had been opened, engaged in spinning, weaving, dyeing and Calico printing, by 1965 the number of spindles had doubled. Multiple centres of textile production are also being set up at various new sites in the interior of People’s Republic of China. China has emerged as the largest cotton textile-producing country in the world. The BeijingHankow industrial conurbation including centres like Paoting, Singtai, and Chengchow has emerged as a leading textile centre. 2. India: India is the second largest cotton textile producer in the world. The first cotton mill in India was erected in Calcutta in 1818, while first mill in Bombay (now Mumbai) was started in 1854, which was destined to become the home of the cotton mill industry. The early concentration of the cotton textile industry in Mumbai was governed not so much by natural and permanent factors as by other advantages, such as abundance of capital and credit facilities, the presence of cheap and speedy means of transport and the temporary growth of the demand for yarn from China, which Mumbai was in an exceptionally favourable situation to meet. the situation. It is significant to note that even within these particular areas or regions, the industry is predominantly localised within a few important industrial centres like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Vadodara, Pune, Kanpur, Delhi, Indore, Gwalior, Coimbatore, Kalol, Bhagalpur, Warangal, Calcutta, Howrah, Serampur, Konnagar, Sodepur, Panihati, etc. At present, there are more than 1,220 cotton mills in India; of these, 283 are composite mills and the remaining are the spinning mills. Production wise, Maharashtra tops with 16.4 per cent yarn and 52.3 per cent cloth production in the country, followed by states of Tamil Nadu (30.4% yarn and 8.8% fabric), Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Punjab, Karnataka, etc. 3. Russia: Russia ranks third in cotton cloth production in the world and it produces about ten per cent of the total cotton cloth of the world. Although in Russia textile industry has not received priority in its development plans. The important regions are: i. Moscow-Ivanovo Region is the oldest and the most important textile region. Ivanovo is having a large number of cotton spinning and weaving centres, also known as ‘Manchester of Russia’. Moscow is another centre, around which Noginsk, Pavlovsky, Yegoryevsk, Serpukhov, etc., have developed. ii. Leningrad or St. Petersburg Region is also known for cotton textile industry. St. Petersburg, Narva and Tallin are important centres of this region. iii. Kalinin Region extends west of Moscow. Kalinin, Vishniye, Volochak are important textile centres. iv. Siberia Region has been developed on availability of cheap hydro-electricity, transport facility and labour. Several centres like Omsk, Novosibirsk, Barnaul, Briansk, Kamarovo, Kansk, Leninsk-Kuznetskiye, Kustney have cotton textile industry. v. Volga basin and Ural region also have cotton textile units. 4. USA: USA is the leading cotton textile producer in the world. The two factors responsible for its growth and development are: (a) capital, and (b) the local market. In USA cotton textile industry is localised in the following regions: i. New England: New England used to be the largest centre until a few years ago but the South has surpassed it now. Within New England, the mills are scattered, though a large number of spindles are concentrated within thirty miles of Providence in southern New England. A large quantity of cloth comes for finishing, dyeing, printing, etc., from the South and other cotton-manufacturing regions of the USA. ii. Mid-Atlantic: The Middle Atlantic States cotton factories are located in Pennsylvania, New York and Maryland. The Mid-Atlantic States are pre-eminent in the production of knitted goods. In both, New York and Pennsylvania, there is localisation of the knitting industry, around Cohoes in the Mohawk valley and at Philadelphia. iii. Southern States: The growth of cotton industry in the southern states has increased within recent years. The most extensive construction of mills in the South has been in three states – North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 5. Japan: After China and India, Japan is the third leading Asian country in cotton textile production. The main geographical factors helping in the establishment of a successful cotton industry in Japan are: i. A suitable climate ii. Cheap water-power iii. Transport facilities iv. Supply of cheap and skilled labour v. The proximity to the large markets of China and India. The pioneer attempts to set up industries were made around cotton-growing tracts of Nobi and Kanto regions. Now the major textile centres are located at Chukyo, Hanshin, Toyama, Kyushu and Keihin and also at Osaka and Nagoya. Spatially, majority of the cotton mills are located within the northern half of Japan.The bulk of the textile goods are produced in following regions: i. The Kwanto Plain ii. Nagowa iii. The Kinki Plain iv. Along the Northern Coast. 6. Germany: Germany is one of the leading producers of cotton textile. Initially, the industry was set up depending upon imported cotton and most of the industries were developed along Rhine River valley. But Ruhr industrial region soon became a leading textile centre. The cotton manufacturing centres of Germany are grouped into the following three groups: i. North-Western: Consisting of Rhine region towns like Barmen and Elberfield, and EmsVechta towns like Pheine and Gronau. ii. Central: Consisting of towns along the three mountain ranges which separate Bohemia from Germany, Reichenbach, Chemnitz, Leipzig and Dresden iii. South-Western: Consisting of towns like Augsburgh, Stuttgart and Mulhouse. 7. Hong Kong: Hong Kong ranks 7th in production of cotton cloth in the world. The industry in Hong Kong was set up by the refugees from communist China in 1949. Hong Kong is a free trade area and one of the principal ports of the world. Manufactured goods, particularly textile provide three-fourths of total export earnings. Three major parts of Hong Kong’s giant textile industry – the spinning, weaving and finishing business are in a decline from which they may never fully recover. Employment in the industry has plummeted in the past years. 8. The United Kingdom was the leading cotton manufacturing country in the world, but it no longer dominates the world in cotton textile production. The subsequent invention of spinning machines encouraged the growth. The humid climate and local skilled labour helped a lot during the initial period of development. The early centres were developed around Scottish Lowlands, Nottingham, Ireland and Lancashire. Gradually, Lancashire became the most developed textile centre in the world. Apart from Lancashire, Manchester has also emerged as a leading textile centre. The cotton manufacturing towns of Bottom, Bury, Rochdale, Oldham and Stockport (in Cheshire) are located in a semi-circle around Manchester. The relative position of UK in textile industry has been decreased considerably due to overall decrease of consumption of cotton goods, loss of overseas market and emergence of new textile-producing countries like China, India, Japan, etc. 9. Other Countries: In Europe other cotton textile-producing countries are France, Italy, Switzerland, Romania, Czech Republic, Belgium, Poland and Spain. France’s cotton textile industry has had a long history. Problems of Cotton Textile Industry: Although cotton textile is one of the most important industries, it suffers from many problems. Some of the burning problems are briefly described as under: 1. Scarcity of Raw Cotton: The cotton textile industry suffers a lot as a result offued between countries and relatively a problem like partition, because most of the long staple cotton growing areas went to the other country. Apart from this, the shortage of raw material in all is a big problem. Although much headway has been made to improve the production of raw cotton, its supply has always fallen short of the demand. Consequently, much of the long staple cotton requirements are met by resorting to imports by a country in a situation like this. 2. Obsolete Machinery: Most of the textile mills which have old with obsolete machinery results in low productivity and inferior quality. In the developed countries, the textile machinery installed even 10-15 years ago has become outdated and obsolete, whereas in developing countries about 60-75 per cent machinery is 25-30 years old. Only 18-20 per cent of the looms in the developing countries like India are automatic whereas percentage of such looms ranges from cent per cent in Hong Kong and the USA., 99 per cent in Canada, 92 per cent in Sweden, 83 per cent in Norway, 76 per cent in Denmark, 70 per cent in Australia, 60 per cent in Pakistan and 45 per cent in China. 3. Erratic Power Supply: Power supply to most cotton textile mills if erratic and inadequate, adversely affects the production. 4. Low Productivity of Labour: Labour productivity in developing countries is extremely low as compared to some of the advanced countries. On an average a worker in them handles about 2 looms as compared to 30 looms in Japan and 60 looms in the USA. If the productivity of an American worker is taken as 100, the corresponding figure is 51 for U.K. 33 for Japan and only 13 for India. 5. Strikes: Labour strikes are common in the industrial sector but cotton textile industry suffers a lot due to frequent strikes by a labour force. 6. Stiff Competition: Cotton mill industry has to face stiff competition from powerloom and handloom sector, synthetic fibres and from products of other countries. 7. Sick Mills: The above factors acting singly or in association with one another have resulted in many sick mills. CONCEPT OF MANUFACTURING REGIONS An industrial region, also called manufacturing region is characterized by a landscape dominated by an assemblage of factories, chimneys, ejecting smoke and ash, heaps of raw material, scrap and slag, godowns, building, offices, labour colonies, means of transport etc. Industrial regions are those areas, where concentration of industries has occurred due to favorable geo-economic conditions. These are areas within which manufacturing industry is carried out on a relatively large scale and employs a relatively large proportion of population. Industrial regions are those areas, where concentration of industries has occurred due to favorable geo-economic conditions. These are areas within which manufacturing industry is carried out on a relatively large scale and employs a relatively large proportion of population. The spatial distribution of manufacturing units shows a distinct trend of localization towards a few selected areas; these regions are referred to as ‘industrial regions’. THE COMMON CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE MANUFACTURING REGIONS ARE: 1. Large population engaged in industrial pursuits, 2. Large industrial complex in hierarchical order, 3. Integration of some main industries with a group of subsidiary industries, 4. Large banking and credit facilities, 5. A network of communication lines, and 6. A large market for labour supply, etc. The industrial regions of the world are very unevenly distributed over the face of the earth. Both natural and cultural factors are involved in any explanation of the distribution of