University:
Winston-Salem Forsyth County Schools
Course:
AP Environmental Science
Academic year:

2011
Views:

315

Pages:

83
Author:

Macy Escobar

Atmospheric Basics Objectives • Describe the composition of the atmosphere. • Compare and contrast the various layers of the atmosphere. • Identify three methods of transferring energy throughout the atmosphere. Vocabulary – – – – – ozone troposphere stratosphere mesosphere thermosphere – – – – exosphere radiation conduction convection Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition • Air is a combination of many gases, each with its own unique characteristics. • About 99 percent of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen, with the remaining one percent consisting of small amounts of argon, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Key Atmospheric Gases – The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere can be as much as four percent of the atmosphere or as little as almost zero. – Carbon dioxide, another variable gas, makes up under one percent of the atmosphere. – The levels of both carbon dioxide and water vapor play an important role in regulating the amount of energy the atmosphere absorbs. – Water is the only substance in the atmosphere that exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Key Atmospheric Gases – When water changes from one state to another, heat is either absorbed or released which greatly affects weather and climate. – The atmosphere also contains solids in the form of tiny particles of dust, salt, and ice. Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Ozone – Ozone (O3), is a gas formed by the addition of a third oxygen atom to an oxygen molecule (O2). – Evidence indicates that the ozone layer is thinning. Atmospheric Basics Structure of the Atmosphere • The atmosphere is made up of several different layers. • Each layer differs in composition and temperature. Atmospheric Basics Structure of the Atmosphere Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Lower Atmospheric Layers – The troposphere, the layer closest to Earth’s surface, contains most of the mass of the atmosphere, including water vapor. – Most weather takes place in and most air pollution collects in the troposphere. – The troposphere is characterized by a general decrease in temperature from bottom to top. – The upper limit of the troposphere, called the tropopause, varies in height. Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Lower Atmospheric Layers – The stratosphere, which is above the tropopause, is a layer made up primarily of concentrated ozone. – The stratosphere is heated because ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, and air gradually increases in temperature to the top of the layer, called the stratopause. Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Upper Atmospheric Layers – The mesosphere is the atmospheric layer above the stratopause. – The top boundary of this layer is the mesopause. – The thermosphere is the atmospheric layer above the mesopause that contains only a minute portion of the atmosphere’s mass. Atmospheric Basics Atmospheric Composition Upper Atmospheric Layers – The ionosphere, which is made up of electrically charged particles and layers of progressively lighter gases, is part of the thermosphere. – The exosphere, which is composed of light gases such as helium and hydrogen, is the outermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere. – There is no clear boundary between the atmosphere and space. Atmospheric Basics Solar Fundamentals • The Sun is the source of all energy in the atmosphere. • This energy is transferred to Earth and throughout the atmosphere through radiation, conduction, and convection. Atmospheric Basics Solar Fundamentals Radiation – The Sun is shining on, and therefore warming, some portion of Earth’s surface at all times. – Radiation is the transfer of energy through space by visible light, ultraviolet radiation, and other forms of electromagnetic waves. – While Earth is absorbing solar radiation, it is also continuously sending energy back into space. Atmospheric Basics Solar Fundamentals Radiation Atmospheric Basics Solar Fundamentals Radiation – The rate of absorption for any particular area varies depending on the physical characteristics of the area and the amount of solar radiation it receives. – Most of the solar radiation that travels through the atmosphere does so at short wavelengths, which are not easily absorbed. – Earth’s surface absorbs the solar radiation and then radiates energy with longer wavelengths, which warm the atmosphere through conduction and convection. Atmospheric Basics Solar Fundamentals Radiation-Conduction-Convection Atmospheric Basics Solar Fundamentals Conduction – Conduction is the transfer of energy that occurs when molecules collide. – Through conduction, energy is transferred from the particles of air near Earth’s surface to the particles of air in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. – For conduction to occur, substances must be in contact with one another. – Conduction affects only a very thin atmospheric layer near Earth’s surface. Atmospheric Basics Solar Fundamentals Convection – Convection is the transfer of energy by the flow of a heated substance. – Pockets of air near Earth’s surface are heated, become less dense than the surrounding air, and rise. – As the warm air rises, it expands and starts to cool. – When it cools below the temperature of the surrounding air, it increases in density and sinks. – Convection currents are among the main mechanisms responsible for the vertical motions of air, which in turn cause different types of weather. Atmospheric Basics Section Assessment 1. Match the following terms with their definitions. ___ B radiation ___ A conduction ___ C convection A. the transfer of energy that occurs when molecules collide B. the transfer of energy through space by visible light, ultraviolet radiation, and other forms of electromagnetic waves C. the transfer of energy by the flow of a heated substance Atmospheric Basics Section Assessment 2. Label the layers of Earth’s atmosphere. Exosphere Thermosphere Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere Atmospheric Basics Section Assessment 3. Why is ozone important? Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun. If ozone did not control the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth’s surface, our skin could not tolerate exposure to the Sun for very long. State of the Atmosphere Objectives • Describe the various properties of the atmosphere and how they interact. • Explain why atmospheric properties change with changes in altitude. Vocabulary – temperature – lifted condensation level – heat – temperature inversion – dew point – humidity – condensation – relative humidity State of the Atmosphere Temperature Versus Heat • Temperature is a measurement of how rapidly or slowly molecules move around. • Heat is the transfer of energy that occurs because of a difference in temperature between substances. • Heat is the transfer of energy that fuels atmospheric processes, while temperature is used to measure and interpret that energy. State of the Atmosphere Temperature Versus Heat Measuring Temperature – Temperature can be measured in degrees Fahrenheit (°F), in degrees Celsius (°C), or in kelvins (K), the SI unit of temperature. – The Kelvin scale measures the number of kelvins above absolute zero, a point where molecular motion theoretically stops. State of the Atmosphere Temperature Versus Heat Dew Point – The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure to reach saturation. – Saturation is the point at which the air holds as much water vapor as it possibly can. – Condensation cannot occur until air is saturated. – Condensation occurs when matter changes state from a gas to a liquid. State of the Atmosphere Vertical Temperature Changes • The temperature of the lower atmosphere decreases with increasing distance from Earth’s surface. • An air mass that does not exchange heat with its surroundings will cool off by about 10°C for every 1000 m increase in altitude. • The dry adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which unsaturated air, to which no heat is added or removed, will cool. State of the Atmosphere Vertical Temperature Changes • If the air is able to continue rising, eventually it will cool to its condensation temperature. • The lifted condensation level, or LCL, is the height at which condensation occurs. • The moist adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which saturated air cools and ranges from about 4°C/1000 m in very warm air to almost 9°C/1000 m in very cold air. State of the Atmosphere Vertical Temperature Changes State of the Atmosphere Air Pressure and Density • The gravitational attraction between Earth and atmospheric gases causes particles of gas to be pulled toward the center of Earth. • Air pressure increases as you near the bottom of the atmosphere because of the greater mass of the atmosphere above you. • Atmospheric pressure decreases with height because there are fewer and fewer gas particles exerting pressure. • The density of air is proportional to the number of particles of air occupying a particular space. State of the Atmosphere Air Pressure and Density State of the Atmosphere Pressure-Temperature-Density Relationship • Temperature, pressure, and density are related. • In the atmosphere, temperature is directly proportional to pressure. • If an air mass maintains a certain density, as temperature increases or decreases, pressure does, too. State of the Atmosphere Pressure-Temperature-Density Relationship • The relationship between temperature and density is inversely proportional. • If an air mass maintains a certain pressure, as temperature increases, density decreases, and as temperature decreases, density increases. State of the Atmosphere Pressure-Temperature-Density Relationship • In most atmospheric interactions, however, neither density nor pressure remains unchanged. • Temperature varies with changes in both pressure and density. • Temperature is proportional to the ratio of pressure to density, which decreases with increasing altitude. State of the Atmosphere Pressure-Temperature-Density Relationship Temperature Inversion – A temperature inversion is an increase in temperature with height in an atmospheric layer. – This can happen when the lower layers of the atmosphere lose heat to Earth’s surface and become cooler than the air above them. – A temperature inversion can act like a lid to trap pollution under the inversion layer. – In all cases, the presence or absence of inversions can have a profound effect on weather conditions. State of the Atmosphere Wind • Air moves in response to density imbalances created by the unequal heating and cooling of Earth’s surface. • These imbalances, in turn, create areas of high and low pressure. • Wind can be thought of as air moving from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. • Wind speed generally increases with height in the atmosphere because there is less friction. State of the Atmosphere Relative Humidity • Air in the lower portion of the atmosphere always contains at least some water vapor. • Humidity is the amount of water vapor in air. • Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor in a volume of air compared to how much water vapor that volume of air is capable of holding. State of the Atmosphere Relative Humidity • Relative humidity varies with temperature because warm air is capable of holding more moisture than cool air. – If the temperature of an air parcel increases and no additional water vapor is added, its relative humidity decreases. – If more water vapor is added to the parcel, its relative humidity increases. State of the Atmosphere Relative Humidity • Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage. – If a certain volume of air is holding as much water vapor as it possibly can, then its relative humidity is 100 percent. – If that same volume of air is holding half as much water vapor as it can, its relative humidity is 50 percent, and so on. State of the Atmosphere Section Assessment 1. Match the following terms with their definitions. ___ A temperature ___ D heat ___ B dew point ___ C humidity A. a measurement of how rapidly or slowly molecules move around B. the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure to reach saturation C. the amount of water vapor in air D. the transfer of energy that occurs because of a difference in temperature between substances State of the Atmosphere Section Assessment 2. What is the significance of 0 kelvin? Nothing can be colder than 0 K. This is called absolute zero and is the point where molecular motion theoretically stops. State of the Atmosphere Section Assessment 3. Identify whether the following statements are true or false. ______ true 1 m3 of air containing 5 g of water vapor has a higher relative humidity at 10ºC verses 20ºC. ______ false As air flows down from a mountain, and its pressure increases, its temperature will fall. ______ false Beyond the liquid condensation level, temperature generally increases. ______ true Condensation cannot occur until air temperature reaches its dew point. Moisture in the Atmosphere Objectives • Explain how clouds are formed. • Identify the basic characteristics of different cloud groups. • Describe the water cycle. Vocabulary – condensation nuclei – coalescence – orographic lifting – precipitation – stability – water cycle – latent heat – evaporation Moisture in the Atmosphere Cloud Formation • Buoyancy is the tendency for air to rise or sink as a result of differences in density. • Clouds form when warm, moist air rises, expands, and cools in a convection current. • Condensation nuclei are small particles in the atmosphere around which cloud droplets can form. Moisture in the Atmosphere Cloud Formation • Orographic lifting occurs when wind encounters a mountain and the air has no place to go but up. • The air expands and cools resulting in cloud formation. Moisture in the Atmosphere Cloud Formation • Cloud formation occurs with the collision of air masses of different temperatures. • As warmer air collides with cooler air, the bulk of it will be forced to rise over the more-dense, cold air. • As the warm air cools, the water vapor in it condenses and forms a cloud. Moisture in the Atmosphere Cloud Formation Stability – How rapidly any given mass of air cools determines its stability. – Stability is the ability of an air mass to resist rising. – The rate at which an air mass cools depends in part on the temperature of the surface beneath the air. – Air can become unstable if it is cooler than the surface beneath it. – If temperature conditions are right and the air mass rises rapidly, it can produce the type of clouds associated with thunderstorms. Moisture in the Atmosphere Cloud Formation Latent Heat – As water vapor in the air condenses, heat is released. – The energy to change liquid water into a gaseous state is stored in the water vapor. – Latent heat is stored energy in water vapor that is not released to warm the atmosphere until condensation takes place. – The amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere is a significant source of energy because of the latent heat it contains. Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds • When a mass of rising air reaches its lifted condensation level, or LCL, water vapor condenses. • If the density of these droplets is great enough, they become visible in the form of a cloud. • This process can take place at many different altitudes and form different cloud shapes. Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds • Clouds are generally classified according to a system originally developed by English naturalist Luke Howard in 1803. • The modern system groups clouds by the altitude at which they form and by their shape. – Low clouds typically form below 2000 m. – Middle clouds form between 2000 m to 6000 m. – High clouds composed of ice crystals form above 6000 m. – Vertical development clouds spread throughout all altitudes at the same time. Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds Low Clouds – If rising air stays warmer than the surrounding air, the cloud will continue to grow. – If the air does not stay warmer than the surrounding air, the cloud will flatten out and winds will spread layered cumulus clouds. – Stratus, a layered cloud that covers much or all of the sky, often forms when fog lifts away from Earth’s surface. Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds Middle Clouds – Altocumulus and altostratus clouds, which form at heights between 2000 m and 6000 m, can be either all liquid or a mixture of liquid and ice crystals. – Middle clouds are usually layered. Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds High Clouds – Because they form above heights of 6000 m, where temperatures are below freezing, high clouds are made up of ice crystals. – Cirrus clouds, often have a wispy, indistinct appearance. – Cirrostratus clouds form as a continuous layer that sometimes covers the sky. Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds Clouds of Vertical Development – If the air that makes up a cumulus cloud is unstable enough, the cloud will continue to grow. – As it rises, water vapor condenses, and the air receives additional warmth from the release of latent heat. – If conditions are right, it can reach nearly 18 000 m. – A cumulus cloud can thus develop into a full-fledged cumulonimbus that is capable of producing the torrential rains and strong winds that are characteristic of thunderstorms. Moisture in the Atmosphere Types of Clouds Moisture in the Atmosphere Precipitation • Coalescence occurs when cloud droplets collide and join together to form a larger droplet. • When the droplet becomes too heavy to be held aloft, gravity takes over and it falls to Earth as precipitation. • Precipitation includes all forms of water, both liquid and solid, that fall from clouds including rain, snow, sleet, and hail. Moisture in the Atmosphere The Water Cycle • At any one time, only a small percentage of water is present in the atmosphere. • This water continually moves between the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. • The water cycle is the constant movement of water between the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. • Evaporation is the process of water changing from a liquid to a gas. Moisture in the Atmosphere The Water Cycle Moisture in the Atmosphere Section Assessment 1. Match the following terms with their definitions. ___ B condensation nuclei A. process by which cloud droplets ___ D stability ___ A coalescence ___ C latent heat collide and join together to form a larger droplet B. small particles in the atmosphere around which cloud droplets can form C. stored energy in water vapor that is not released to warm the atmosphere until condensation takes place D. the ability of an air mass to resist rising Moisture in the Atmosphere Section Assessment 2. What is the source of energy that fuels the water cycle? The water cycle receives its energy from the Sun. Moisture in the Atmosphere Section Assessment 3. How can latent heat affect the weather? When latent heat is released during condensation, it can provide energy to a weather system, thereby increasing its intensity. Chapter Resources Menu Study Guide Section 11.1 Section 11.2 Section 11.3 Chapter Assessment Image Bank Section 11.1 Study Guide Section 11.1 Main Ideas • Earth’s atmosphere is made of a combination of several gases, primarily nitrogen and oxygen. It also contains small amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and dust, which play key roles in the production of weather and climate. • The atmosphere consists of several layers characterized by differences in temperature. The most important for weather is the lowest layer, the troposphere, where most of the mass of the atmosphere is found. • The Sun is the source of energy in Earth’s atmosphere. Solar energy absorbed by Earth’s surface is transferred throughout the atmosphere by the processes of radiation, conduction, and convection. Section 11.2 Study Guide Section 11.2 Main Ideas • Heat is the transfer of energy that occurs because of a difference in temperature between substances. Temperature is the measure of how rapidly or slowly molecules move around. Atmospheric temperature generally decreases with altitude. • Air has mass and exerts a force called atmospheric pressure. Because there are fewer molecules of gas in the upper atmosphere, atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. • Wind is the movement of air that results from differences in pressure. Wind speed is affected by friction; mountains, forests, and buildings slow wind down. Section 11.3 Study Guide Section 11.3 Main Ideas • Clouds are formed as warm, moist air is forced upward, expands, and cools. Orographic lifting is a method of cloud formation that involves air moving up the side of a mountain. Clouds may also form when air masses of different temperatures collide. • Clouds are generally classified according to the altitudes at which they form and their shapes. • As cloud droplets collide, they coalesce into larger droplets, which may fall to Earth as precipitation. The four main types of precipitation are rain, snow, sleet, and hail. • In the water cycle, water continually moves between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere through the processes of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Chapter Assessment Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following gasses makes up the largest percentage of the atmosphere? a. oxygen c. nitrogen b. carbon dioxide d. hydrogen Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere. Oxygen makes up 21 percent. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen make up part of the remaining one percent. Chapter Assessment Multiple Choice 2. In which layer of the atmosphere contains the ozone layer? a. troposphere c. mesosphere b. stratosphere d. thermosphere The ozone layer is found 20–50 km above Earth’s surface placing it below the stratopause in the stratosphere. Chapter Assessment Multiple Choice 3. You plan to climb 1500 m up a mountain on a sunny day. What temperature drop should be expected during your climb? a. 5ºC c. 15ºC b. 10ºC d. 20ºC Since you will not be climbing high enough to reach the lifted condensation level which would be marked by clouds, you should use the dry adiabatic lapse rate (10ºC per 1000 m) to figure temperature drop. Chapter Assessment Multiple Choice 4. Which atmospheric phenomenon would most likely aid in smog formation? a. temperature inversion c. conduction b. orographic lifting d. convection A temperature inversion can act like a lid to trap pollution under the inversion layer. Orographic lifting, conduction, and convection all help to mix the atmosphere. Chapter Assessment Multiple Choice 5. Which of the following is a cloud of vertical development? a. altocumulus c. nimbostratus b. cumulonimbus d. stratocumulus Cumulonimbus clouds begin as cumulus clouds and can reach more than 18 000 m into the atmosphere. They are associated with thunderstorms and sometimes have a classic anvil-shaped top. Chapter Assessment Short Answer 6. Explain the relationship between air temperature and density. The relationship between temperature and density is inversely proportional. If an air mass maintains a certain pressure, as temperature increases, density decreases, and as temperature decreases, pressure increases. Air rises when its temperature increases because it is less dense. Chapter Assessment Short Answer 7. Why does Earth’s surface play a larger role in warming the atmosphere than direct solar radiation? Solar radiation that travels through the atmosphere does so at short wavelengths that are not easily absorbed by the atmosphere but are absorbed by Earth’s surface. The surface then radiates energy back at longer wavelengths that can be absorbed by the atmosphere. The air is then warmed through the processes of conduction and convection. Chapter Assessment True or False 8. Identify whether the following statements are true or false. ______ false 100ºF is equal to 373 K. ______ true Most weather occurs in the troposphere. ______ true If the amount of water vapor in the air stays the same as the temperature rises, relative humidity decreases. ______ false Latent heat causes the evaporation that fuels the water cycle. ______ true Conduction affects only a very thin atmospheric layer near Earth’s surface. Image Bank Chapter 11 Images Image Bank Chapter 11 Images Image Bank Chapter 11 Images Image Bank Chapter 11 Images To navigate within this Interactive Chalkboard product: Click the Forward button to go to the next slide. Click the Previous button to return to the previous slide. Click the Chapter Resources button to go to the Chapter Resources slide where you can access resources such as assessment questions that are available for the chapter. Click the Menu button to close the chapter presentation and return to the Main Menu. If you opened the chapter presentation directly without using the Main Menu this will exit the presentation. You also may press the Escape key [Esc] to exit and return to the Main Menu. Click the Help button to access this screen. Click the Earth Science Online button to access the Web page associated with the particular chapter with which you are working. Click the Speaker button to hear the vocabulary term and definition when available. End of Custom Shows This slide is intentionally blank.