Course Study Guide for Computer Studies Python

Course Study Guide for Computer Studies: Python Chapter 1 : What is a Computer ● Definition of a Computer: An electronic device that executes the instructions in a program. A computer has four functions: inputs data, processes data, produces output, and stores results. (This definition is broad and covers all computers, smartphones, calculators, tablets, etc.) ● Simple View of a Computer: when data is imputed into the computer, it is then processed and served as an output. When the information is processed, information can be saved in the storage and the storage can provide information to be processed. The diagram below shows the best way to visualize a simple view of a computer. Storage Input Processing Output ● Examples of Inputs, Outputs, Processing, and Storage ○ Inputs: CD, headphones, cables, mouse, keyboard, microphone ○ Outputs: monitor/screen, speaker, projector, printer ○ Processing: motherboard, CPU ○ Storage: CPU, SD card, ROM Chapter 2: Components of a Computer ● Main Parts of a Computer: ○ CPU: the “Central Processing Unit” is the main component of the computer which processes information and runs the operating system and applications, commonly known as “the brain” of the computer. ○ ROM: the “Read Only Memory” stores memory only for a short term. Ex. files which are open and running ○ RAM: the “Random Access Memory” permanently stores instructions in the computer. E.x. instructions on how to turn on the computer. ○ Battery: the battery is typically a lithium battery built into the motherboard which is always running. The battery powers the RTC (Real Time Clock). ○ Motherboard: the motherboard is used to connect all the hardware in the computer together. Commonly known as “the backbone” of the computer. ○ GPU: the “Graphics Processing Unit” more commonly referred to as the Graphics Card is used to create images for display on the monitor/screen. ○ Hard Drive: the hard drive stores all the digital content such as videos, photos, music, programs, and more. Hard drives can be found within computers but one can also use an external hard drive to store more data. ○ DVD Drive: the DVD drive is used to play DVDs/CDs. ○ Data Cable: the data cable allows communication between hardware components inside the computer. The IDE data cable is a thick ribbon-like cable which is located connected to the hard drive and motherboard. ○ Power Cable: the power cable is the main cable that provides power to the computer and peripherals. The electrical current is passed through the cable which connects to the PSU. ○ PSU: the “Power Supply Unit” is used to convert power from an outlet to power which can be used within the computer. It is located at the back of the computer and has a three-pronged port where the power cable connects from an outlet to the PSU. ○ UPS: the “Uninterruptible power supply/source” is the power backup. If the power was to ever go out, the UPS has some power left within it to power the computer for a little bit longer to be able to save all the data and prevent damage to the components within. ● Ports and Connectors: ○ What is a port? a computer port is a connection point or interface between a computer and an external or internal device. Internal ports may connect such devices as hard drives and CD, ROM, or DVD drives; external ports may connect modems, printers, keyboards, and other devices. ○ Commonly Used Modem Ports: ■ Video graphics array (VGA) port: commonly connects monitor or projector to a computer’s video card. ■ Digital Visual Interface (DVI) port: connects flat panel LCD monitor to the computer’s high-end video graphic card. Digital interface provides for much higher picture quality than analog VGA. Still very popular among video card manufacturers. ■ Displayport: carries graphics and audio, is aimed to replace VGA ■ High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI): widely used for audio/visual display that replaces display ports and VGA. HDMI transfers data quickly without needing to compress data, which allows for high definition displays. ■ Thunderbolt Cable: connects a Mac device to peripherals (inputs/outputs). It can transfer data, audio/video, and charge devices. Ports Involved in Graphics Video Audio DVI DisplayPort VGA HDMI Thunderbolt ✅ ✅ ✅ ✅ ✅ ✅ ✅ Gaining popularity Charging ✅ Features Very commonly used ■ Universal Serial Bus (USB): connects all kinds of external USB devices such as a mouse, storage, etc. USB devices can get power from a USB port USB 2.0 and 3.0. ■ USBC: standard port for charging and transferring data. USBC is replacing the USB port currently. ■ Ethernet Port: connects a computer to a network and high-speed Internet. This port resides on an Ethernet card which is built into the motherboard. Also known as “Network Port” or “RJ-4 Port” ■ Power Connector: three-pronged plug (usually black in color) connects the computer to an electrical outlet or power bar. ■ Sound Port: connects speakers (green color), connects microphone (pink color). The sound port is used to connect an external audio devices to computers to allow the computer to play or record sound from that device (e.x MP3 player) ○ List of Less Commonly Used Modem Parts (Many of these ports have been updated or replaced by USB): ■ PS/2 Port ■ Serial Port ■ Parallel Port ■ Firewire Port ■ Game/MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) Port ■ Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) Chapter 3: How to Replace Crucial Hardware Parts in a Modem Computer ● How to Replace a Hard Drive (steps in order): ○ Stand on an anti-static mat or wear an anti-static wrist band (this is to avoid static electricity destroying components within the computer) ○ Shutdown the computer ○ Disconnect all cables ○ Take the computer to a clear area ○ Press the power button (this will release all the remaining power) ○ Open the case ○ Remove the power cable ○ Remove the data cable (IDE cable) ○ Remove old Hard Drive ○ Place new Hard Drive in the slot ○ Connect the power and data cables ○ Replace the case, power and start the machine ○ Test if the new drive works ● How to Replace a DVD Drive (steps in order): ○ Stand on an anti-static mat or wear an anti-static wrist band (this is to avoid static electricity destroying components within the computer) ○ Shutdown the computer ○ Disconnect all cables ○ Take the computer to a clear area ○ Press the power button (this will release all the remaining power) ○ Open the case ○ Remove the power cable ○ Remove the data cable (IDE cable) and the audio cable ○ Remove old DVD Drive ○ Place new DVD Drive in the slot ○ Connect the power and data cables ○ Replace the case, power and start the machine ○ Test if the new DVD drive works ● How to Replace a RAM (steps in order): ○ Stand on an anti-static mat or wear an anti-static wrist band (this is to avoid static electricity destroying components within the computer) ○ Shutdown the computer ○ Disconnect all cables ○ Take the computer to a clear area ○ Press the power button (this will release all the remaining power) ○ Open the case ○ Remove the old RAM stick ○ Place new RAM stick by matching the notches and gently snap in place ○ Connect all cables, replace the case, power and start the machine ○ Test if the new drive works Chapter 4: Software ● Software: provides instructions for the computer hardware to operate. Unlike hardware that one can touch, the software is strictly digital. ○ 3 Types of Software: ■ System Software: helps run the computer e.x. Windows, Linux, Mac Os. ■ Application Software (Apps): the programs we use e.x. Word, Google Chrome, Fortnite. ■ Programming Languages: they are used to create system software and application software e.x. Python, Java, etc. Chapter 5: Networking ● Networking: the main purpose of networking is sharing. It is a system that links together computers to share data. Networking is used to increase efficiency and decrease cost e.x. sharing information, centralizing administration, and more. ● Two major types of networking: ○ LAN: “Local Area Network” can be simple or complex (two computers connected by a cable to hundreds of computers connected by cables). ■ LAN is within small areas such as homes, offices, office buildings, etc. ○ WAN: “Wide Area Network” has no geographical limit, it can connect across the world as it is many interconnected LANs ■ The Internet is the ultimate WAN as it can connect large buildings such as universities, schools, or large areas. ● Network Configuration ○ Peer-to-Peer Network: there is no dedicated server among the computers and each computer functions as its own person/client. Many people can use the network and can choose what to share with the network. It is less expensive, takes up less space, and needs no additional software. Recommended for organizations that will experience limited growth (10 users or less). ○ Server Based Network: is a network created to function in a specific way for a specific purpose (such as a company or school system). A server-based network allows access to more files and printers as well as shared resources, higher security, back-up methods, and can support thousands of users. Additional servers required for a server-based network are: ■ File and Print - access files and printers ■ Application Server - to ensure data is available ■ Mail Services - to manage mail, receiving, sending, and accessing by users ■ Directory Services - allows locating, storing, and securing the information on the network Chapter 6: Introduction to Programming & Python ● What is a Computer Program?: a computer program is a collection of instructions that perform a specific task when executed by a computer. ● Human Code vs. Machine Code: ○ Human Code: is a high-level language which is easy to understand and contains English words. Python is known as Human Code as it is written easily to understand with English words. ○ Machine Code: is the computer’s language known as binary code. Binary code is all 1’s and 0’s. ● Binary Code: represents value, usually in 8-bits which make a byte. ○ Example of a bit: 0 (it is one digit of either a 0 or 1) ○ Example of a byte: 00010001 (it is 8 digits of 0 or 1) Starting from right to left, the first bit represents the value of 1, the second bit is the value of 2, the third bit is the value of 4, the fourth bit is the value of 8. Each bit represents a value that increases by the power of 2 as one moves to the left. 00000001 represents 1 00000010 represents 2 00000011 represents 3 00001000 represents 8 and so on. Computers use machine code to write numbers, letters, and anything in between. ● How Programs Run: Programs are run from top to bottom. Writing code in the order of which it needs to be executed is crucial to receive the output desired. ● How to add Comments in Python: when coding, it is important to add comments to know what certain lines of code represent. This can be useful if there are bugs in the code which need to be fixed or for others to understand the code clearly. To add comments simply put the pound sign and write the comment E.x. #this is a comment ○ Make sure to add comments at the top of the program to label the date and the title of the program to keep track of all the programs saved. Chapter 7: Storage and Variables ● Storage: when the program obtains information, it stores it in memory. The specific location of this memory is called a variable ● Variables: a variable is a place in the memory that is used to store information. ○ To distinguish one variable from another, we use different variable names. ○ A variable can change the value by replacing its data in the memory (examples below) ● Declaring a Variable: ○ Used to create a space in the memory to reserve the data ○ A variable name is reserved to identify the data ■ A variable name must be one word (no spaces) ■ Must start with a letter or underscore ■ Can include capital letters ■ Can include numbers ■ Variables are case sensitive ○ The variable name must be on the left side and the value of the variable on the right side ● Meaningful Variable Names: when creating variables, it is important to use meaningful variable names to know what the variables represent. ● Examples of Variables (each bullet point is an example): ○ counter ○ name ○ Smile_ ○ Frog1 ○ _kites ● Examples of How Variables Work: ○ A variable stores value, it can be numbers, letters, and other data types (data types will be covered later in the study guide). ○ Example 1: counter = 7 The value of “counter” has been defined as 7 ○ Example 2: counter = 7 Smile = 14 counter = 8 Once we go through the above code, the value of “counter” is now 8. The value of variables can be replaced and changed. ○ Example 3: counter = 8 - 11 The value of the counter would be -3 Chapter 8: Input and Output ● How to Print a Statement/Value (Creating an Output): print( ) The above line is used to print in python. A value must be entered in quotation marks within the brackets ○ Example: print(“hello world”) The above line will create the output: hello world ● How to Receive an Input: To receive an input one would need a variable to store the input, and would need to ask the user to give an input ○ Example (asking for the user’s age): age = input(“What is your age?”) print(age) The variable of which the value is stored is called “age” “age” is equal to the value of an input The reason for the input is to tell the computer to look for an input and to prompt the user to ask for an input. The “What is your age?” is what will be shown on the screen. This is used as a prompt to let the user know what input is being asked for. The print is used to output the information. The information within the brackets is the variable “age”. The value of the variable “age” is to ask for an input and provide a prompt. (there are no quotation marks as we want to print the contents of the variable age. Not the wordage). The output would look like this: What is your age? And it will wait for the user’s input. Chapter 9: Data Types ● Data Types: are important because certain types of data can be manipulated to create the desired output. Below are the three main data types used in Python. ○ str: a string is a collection of words, numbers, characters, or symbols. ■ A string can be assigned to a variable ■ A certain value can also be specified as a string ○ int: an integer is a value that is a whole number, it can be positive or negative whole numbers (e.x. -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3) ○ float: a float is a number with decimals (e.x. 1.2, 7.83, 11.97) ● Assigning Data Types to Variables: when creating a variable, it can hold only one type of data (string, integer, float, etc.) ○ Asking for an Input: when asking for an input, one can specify if the input needed is an integer, string, float, etc. to ensure that the value given by the user is what is needed. ■ Example: variable = int(input(“please enter a number”)) This line of code shows the variable named “variable”, an input is needed of the data type integer, and the prompt “Please enter a number” for the user to know what to enter. Chapter 10: Operations ● Operations: in Python, operators are used to add, subtract, multiply, and more. Operators do different operations for integer values and string values. ● Operations for Integers (BEDMAS Applies): Operator Operation Code + add 1+1 - subtract 2-1 * multiply 1*2 / divide 4/2 ** exponent 2**2 % modulus (remainder) 7%2 *modulus returns the value of the remainder. For 7%2 the output would be 1 as 7 divided by 2 is 3 remainder 1. ● Operations for Strings: Operation Code Example Output (of the Example) concatenation (combining) a+b x= “gra”+”ph” graph repetition a*5 y= “Zz”*5 ZzZzZzZzZz converts to uppercase str.upper( ) y.upper( ) ZZZZZZZZZZ len(str) len(y) 10 true if found in the str in y = “rain” in “raining” true returns position variable = str.index(“”) a = Elephant x = a.index(“p”) x=3 slice notation [] a = Elephant x = a[0:4] x = Elep counts the number of characters in the str *the first character has the position 0 or index 0 In the phrase “Elephant”, “E” would be index 0, “l” would be index 1, “e” would be index 2, “p” would be index 3 and so on. Chapter 11: If Statements and Booleans ● Boolean: a system of logical thought that is used to create true/false statements ● Operators & Operands: operators are special symbols that carry out arithmetic or logical computation. Operand is the numbers being operated on. ● Boolean Comparison Operators: Symbol Meaning > greater than >= greater than/equal to < less than <= less than/equal to == exactly equal to != not equal to ● Boolean Logical Operator A B A and B A or B not A True True True True False True False False True False False True False True True False False False False True ● Rules for Logic Statements (Booleans): ○ A logic statement contains a comparison between two variables of the same data type followed by a colon. ○ If the logic statement is true, instructions to follow are found in the next lines and are indented ● if statements: (also known as selection statements) allows for the program to make a decision. if statements all have a condition and an outcome. The program will only run through the if statement if the condition is true (if the condition is false then it will not run through the if statement). ● There are three types of controls that allow different blocks of code to be executed based on Boolean expressions ○ if ○ if - else ○ if - elif - else ● How to Use if statements and Booleans with Examples ○ When writing if statements, it is a conditional statement that can be true or false. If the statement is true, it will run through the lines of code which are below and indented. Any lines of instruction can be written to produce the results desired. E.x. x = 11 if (x==11): print(“hello”) In this example, the boolean expression is highlighted in teal and is true (as we can see that x has been set to 11) which is why the output would be: hello However, if the boolean expression is not true, then the program would not run through the if statement. E.x. x = 3278 if (x==11): print(“hello”) In this example, the boolean expression is not true as x is equal to 3278. Since the expression is not true, the program will not run through the if statement and therefore there would be no output. ○ There are three types of controls that allow different types of code to run boolean expressions, above can be seen as only an if statement however there are also ifelse and if-elif-else which can be used to execute the code. ○ if-else works similarly to if statements. First, there is an if statement that has a boolean statement and then after there is the else which does not have a boolean expression. If the if-statement is true, the code will run through the program and skip the else, however, if the if-statement is false, the program will run the instructions under the else. E.x. x = 21 if (x==21): print(“yay”) else: print(“oh no”) In this example, the if statement is true and therefore the program will run the instructions below the if statement. This means the output will look like below: yay However, if the if-statement was false, the program would skip the if-statement but since there is an else statement the program will run through the else statement. E.x. x = 900 if (x==21): print(“yay”) else: print(“oh no”) In this example, the if-statement is false which means the program will not run through the instructions below the if statement. Since there is an else statement, the program will run through the instructions of the else statement. This means the output would look like below: oh no ○ if-elif-else if the if-statement is true, the program will run the instructions below the if-statement. If the if-statement is false, the program will run through the elif statement (if the elif statement is true) but if the elif statement is not true, it will run through the else statement. ○ There can be more than one elif statement (it can be if-elif-elif-elif-else. There can be as many elif statements as needed) E.x. x = 21 if (x==21): print(“yay”) elif (x==15): print(“what”) else: print(“oh no”) In this example, the if-statement is true, the program will run through the ifstatement instructions and ignore the elif and else statement producing the output: yay E.x. x = 15 if (x==21): print(“yay”) elif (x==15): print(“what”) else: print(“oh no”) In this example the if-statement is false, but there is an elif statement so the program will check if the condition is true. Since the elif statement is true (x==15), it will run the instructions below it and skip the else statement. This would produce the following output: what E.x. x = 2873942984 if (x==21): print(“yay”) elif (x==15): print(“what”) else: print(“oh no”) In this example the if-statement and elif statement are false causing the program to skip them and run through the else statement. This would produce the following output: oh no ○ Best way to think about if-statements, if-else, or if-elif-else statements: If “if” is true it will skip the rest If “if” is false, “elif” will run and skip the rest. If “if” is false, “elif” is false then “else” will run Chapter 12: Types of Errors ● Finding and correcting errors in a program is called debugging ● Three Types of Errors: ○ Syntax Errors consist of: ■ Spelling ■ Punctuation/missing symbols (often brackets are missing) ■ Wrong indentation ■ Case sensitive (variables are case sensitive) ■ Incompatible types of data (e.x. adding integers and strings together) ○ Run-time Errors consist of: ■ The program is unable to find data because it does not exist ■ The program is unable to run due to invalid data types (e.x. combining integers and strings) ○ Logical Errors consist of: ■ The code runs correctly but it does not make sense E.x. looking for temperature (in celsius): x = int(input(“Enter the temperature in C”)) print(x) if (x>30): print(“too cold”) This code will run correctly however it does not make sense. The code says if the temperature is greater than 30 print “too cold” but, 30 degrees celsius is very hot and greater than 30 C would be even hotter. Chapter 13: Loops ● Loops: are in a computer program, a set of instructions that are repeated until a specific condition is met ● Three Types of Loops: ○ Counted Loops - For Loops: are used for iterating (repeating) a sequence a certain set number of times. The range( ) function is used which returns a sequence of numbers starting from 0 (by default) and increases by 1 (default). E.x. for i in range(6): print(“hi”) In this example, the “i” is needed in the line of code to allow it to run. However, any letter can be used as the variable and does not need to be defined before the loop. The program will run 7 times as it counts 0-6: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, a total of 7 times. This results in an output which would look like this: hi hi hi hi hi hi hi The loop will run the number of times set, and run the instructions listed below it (similar to if-statements). Once the set number of times is set, the program will exit the loop and continue to the next lines of code. The instructions listed below the “for i in range( ):” line need to be indented and can contain any instructions including if-statements and more. ○ Conditional Loops - While Loops: are used to repeatedly run the same instructions as long as the given condition is true. Conditional loops need to be incremented otherwise they will become an infinite loop (run forever). There are two types of variables that can be used to increment in while loops ■ Accumulator Variable: keeps adding to itself until a goal is accomplished ● To set an accumulator variable first the variable needs to be defined and then needs to be increased by any number (even another variable) ■ Counter Variable: keeps increasing by a set value ● To set a counter variable first the variable needs to be defined and then is incremented by a set value. E.x. i = i+1 This would increment the variable “i” by 1. There is a shortcut way to write that: i += 1 This would also increment the variable “i” by 1. Conditional loops need to have their variables defined before the loop (unlike for For Loops which don’t need the variable to be defined) E.x. a while loop which prints the value of “i” as long as “i” is less than 6 i=1 while (i<6): print(i) i += 1 This while loop would work as the variable is defined before the loop. The loop would run as long as the boolean statement (i<6) is true. Once the boolean statement becomes false, it would break out of the loop. After each time the counter at the bottom would add 1 to “i” each time which “i” would eventually become greater than 6. ○ Infinite Loops: are loops which never end E.x. i=1 while (i==1): print(i) In this example, it is an infinite loop which will never end as “i” will always equal to 1. E.x. i=1 while (i<6): print(i) In this example, it is an infinite loop which will never end as “i” will always be less than 6. ● Break Statement ○ Break Statements in For Loops: the break statement can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items ○ Break Statements in While Loops: the break statement can stop the loop even while the condition is true ● Continue Statement ○ Continue Statements in For Loops: the continue statement can stop the current iteration of the loop and continue with the next ○ Continue Statements in While Loops: the continue statement can stop the current iteration and continue with the next ● Constant Variable: is a type of value whose value does not change. It uses the same value over and over again. Chapter 14: Methods/Functions ● What are Methods?: methods (also known as subprograms or functions) is a group of programming statements which is given a name. Methods can be reused throughout the program (when invoked) making it more efficient. ● Types of Methods: ○ Function-type Method: it calculates and returns a value when the method is called ○ Procedure-type Method: it executes some commands when that method is called ● Why use Methods?: ○ Helps with organization. It breaks down large programs into smaller (sub) programs ○ Makes coding faster and easier ○ Makes debugging faster and easier ○ Helps reuse code by saving time, resource and space ○ Allows for collaboration as the methods (smaller programs) can be put in a larger program ● Methods/Functions in Python: a function is a named section of a program in Python that performs a specific task. ○ It can take inputs and return/output a value ○ It can have zero or more inputs ○ It can have zero or only one return/output There are two types of functions: ○ A return type: functions with a return value ○ A void type: functions with no return value ● How to create a Function/Method in Python: def sentence(): print(“hello world”) def is used to start the function. “sentence” is the name of this function. The function can have any name and can contain uppercase characters, numbers and even underscores. print(“hello world”) is the contents of this function. Anything can be the contents of the function including mathematical operations, loops, if-statements and more. In the brackets after the function name, there is no argument, however one may be added if necessary. To invoke (run) a function, simply write the name of the function with brackets (if there is an argument it must be filled else there will be an error) E.x. sentence() This will run the contents of the function sentence() ○ Functions must be written in the program BEFORE they are invoked. ○ A function can be invoked as many times in the code as desired Chapter 15: Algorithms ● What is an Algorithm? an algorithm is a list of rules/steps to follow in order to solve a problem. When writing an algorithm, the order of instructions is very important. ● Developing an Algorithm: ○ Algorithms must be written in English phrases (pseudo code) ○ Algorithms can be written in point form (preferable) ○ Algorithms may include mathematical symbols (e.x. + - = < >) ○ Use Input, Processing, and output to problem solve ○ For processing, it must include: what needs to be done and how to do it ● Pseudo Code: is NOT a programming language. It is a simple way to describe a set of instructions and does not have to use a specific syntax. It can be used to plan out programs (such as in Python) Chapter 16: Animation - Turtle Graphics ● What is Turtle Graphics?: Turtle graphics is a tool in Python which can create animations. When Turtle Graphics is used, it creates a small pop up window which can create animations based on the code written. ● Using Turtle Graphics: ○ Import turtle: The first thing that needs to be done is getting Turtle into the program. To do this, write “import turtle” at the top of the program. ○ Setting up the screen size: turtle.setup( , ) To set the screen, there must be 2 arguments in the brackets for 50 the length and width of the screen e.x. turtle.setup(500, 500) Setting up the screen size is typically one of the first things done (after importing turtle). -500 50 The screen is also a coordinate plane, but without the lines in the middle. -500 ○ Change arrow shape: by default the cursor which draws in Python is an arrow. To change to arrow: turtle.shape() The desired shape should be written in quotation marks in the bracket. The shape can be an arrow, circle, turtle or blank e.x. turtle.shape(“blank”) ○ Moving forward: turtle.forward() The number of spaces wished for it to move must be written in the brackets e.x. turtle.forward(50) ○ Moving backwards: turtle.backward() The number of spaces wished for it to move must be written in the brackets e.x. turtle.backward(50) ○ Moving right (angles): turtle.right() The angle of which it should turn must be written in the brackets e.x. turtle.right(45) ○ Moving left (angles): turtle.left() The angle of which it should turn must be written in the brackets e.x. turtle.left(45) ○ Changing the pen size (the thickness or thinness): turtle.setpensize() The pen size should be written in the brackets e.x. turtle.setpensize(10) ○ Changing the pen colour: turtle.setpencolor() turtle.pencolor() Above are two different ways to change the pen colour. The colour should be written inside the brackets with quotation marks. Common colour names such as “pink” “purple” can be used. Colour codes may also be used e.x. turtle.pencolor(“#FFC0CB”) ○ Filling a shape with colour: turtle.pencolor() turtle.begin_fill() turtle.end_fill() To fill a shape with colour, the shape must be closed with no gaps else the colour will not fill correctly. The brackets for turtle.begin_fill() and turtle.end_fill() must be left empty ○ Lifting up the pen (so it does not draw): turtle.penup() This will make the pen no longer draw. The brackets must remain empty ○ Putting down the pen (so it can draw): turtle.pendown() This will make the pen draw. The brackets must remain empty ○ Setting coordinates: turtle.setpos( , ) turtle.goto( , ) Above are two ways to set the coordinates. This will make the turtle go to the coordinates which are given e.x. turtle.goto(500,700) The first number is the x position and the second is the y position. ○ Set x or y position: turtle.setx() turtle.sety() This will only change the x or y position. The brackets must contain the location for the turtle to go e.x. turtle.setx(800) ○ Changing the speed: turtle.speed() This can change the speed of the turtle, how fast or slow it draws. The fastest speed is 0 e.x. turtle.speed(0)