We Started Off With a Relatively Simple Structure, With a CP, a TP, a VP

Using the microscope CP  Syntax I Using the microscope  As we looked closer, we had reason to think that the “VP” was more complicated, involving a “little v”.  C′ Ti +C TP did DPk T′ Pat T ti DP tk vP v′ Vm+v eat VP V tm DP tj But for many DP purposes, we whatj don’t need to focus on the minute details of the VP. In those situations, you’ll find that people still write VPs like this, with the understanding that the vP is there. Using the microscope  What we’re going to do now is put “TP” under DPj the microscope, what where we’ll find it is more complicated. For most purposes, we can continue to think about it as “TP”, but this is a preview of where syntax can go from here. C′ Ti +C TP did DPk T′ Pat T VP ti DP V′ tk V DP eat tj Using the microscope CP DPj what We started DPj off with a what relatively simple structure, with a CP, a TP, a VP. CP C′ Ti +C IP did DPk T′ Pat T VP ti DP V′ tk V DP eat tj Let’s go back to French… CP C′ Ii+C IP did DPk I′ Pat I VP ti DP V′ tk V DP eat tj  Jean mange souvent des pommes. Jean eats often of.the apples ‘Jean often eat apples.’ DPj Jean *Jean souvent mange des pommes.  Recall that this was one of our early examples showing verbmovement to T. French and English differ in whether they move finite main verbs to T.  Note: microscope on VP was removed, but we still suppose that there is a vP there… TP T′ Vi+T VP mange tj V′ V′ AdvP souvent ti PP des pommes 1 French and a problem… French negation  Jean ne mange pas des pommes. Jean NE eat NEG of.the apples ‘J doesn’t eat apples.’   This happens with respect to negation too—the finite verb move to the left of negative pas… TP DPk T′ *Jean pas ne mange des pommes.   [Neg+Vi]j+T NegP ne mange pas Neg′ Now let’s look at infinitives, first the auxiliaries…   tj But fortunately or unfortunately, things are more complex that this… Finite verbs (main verbs and auxiliaries) in French precede adverbs and precede negative pas—they must move to T. VP tk V′ ti  PP N’être pas invité, c’est triste. NE beinf NEG invited, it’s sad ‘Not to be invited is sad.’ Ne pas être invité, c’est triste. NE NEG beinf invited, it’s sad ‘Not to be invited is sad.’ Nonfinite auxiliaries can either move past pas (to T) or not, it appears to be optional. French and a problem… French and a problem…  +Fin aux: V Adv, V neg : Moves to T. +Fin verb: V Adv, V neg : Moves to T. –Fin aux: (V) Adv (V), (V) neg (V): (Opt.) Moves to T.  Nonfinite main verbs…and adverbs…       +Fin aux: +Fin verb: –Fin aux: –Fin verb:  Nonfinite main verbs…and negation…    Souvent paraître triste pendant son voyage de noce, c’est rare. Often appearinf sad during one’s honeymoon, it’s rare ‘To often look sad during one’s honeymoon is rare.’ Paraître souvent triste pendant son voyage de noce, c’est rare. Appearinf often sad during one’s honeymoon, it’s rare ‘To often look sad during one’s honeymoon is rare.’   Nonfinite main verbs can either move past adverbs or not; optional like with auxiliaries.     +Fin aux/verb: V Adv, V neg Moves to T. –Fin aux: (V) Adv (V), (V) neg (V) (Opt.) Moves to T. –Fin verb: (V) Adv (V), neg V Moves over adv not neg?? So we have the whole pattern—and we didn’t predict it. Where could the verb be moving? A head can’t adjoin to an XP, it has to be moving to a head. French and a problem…  TP T′ T Ne pas sembler heureux est une condition pour écrire des romans. NE NEG seeminf happy is a prerequisite for writeinf of.the novels ‘Not to seem happy is a prerequisite for writing novels.’ *Ne sembler pas heureux est une condition pour écrire des romans. NE seeminf NEG happy is a prerequisite for writeinf of.the novels ‘Not to seem happy is a prerequisite for writing novels.’ Nonfinite main verbs can not move past negation. French and a problem…  V Adv, V neg : Moves to T. V Adv, V neg : Moves to T. (V) Adv (V), (V) neg (V): (Opt.) Moves to T. (V) Adv (V), …  NegP  pas Neg′  Neg VP ne DPk V′  AdvP V′ souvent V PP +Fin aux/verb: V Adv, V neg Moves to T. –Fin aux: (V) Adv (V), (V) neg (V) (Opt.) Moves to T. –Fin verb: (V) Adv (V), neg V Moves over adv not neg?? We need there to be a head here in the tree for the verb to move to… That means we need to insert a whole phrase (heads always head something)… TP T′ T NegP pas Neg′ Neg VP ne DPk V′ AdvP V′ souvent V PP 2 TP A new FP     +Fin aux/verb: V Adv, V neg Moves to (F, then to) T. –Fin aux: (V) Adv (V), (V) neg (V) (Opt.) Moves to (F, then to) T. –Fin verb: (V) Adv (V), neg V (Opt.) Moves to F What is FP? T′ NegP T   FP F ‘You took the apple.’ Vous les avez prises. you them have taken 3PL  3FPL  DPk 3FPL ‘Which apples did you take?’ V′ 3FSG ‘You took it (3fsg).’ Quelles pommes avez-vous prises? Which apples have you taken 3FPL Vous l’avez prise. you it have taken 3SG ‘You took them (3fpl).’ VP Vous avez pris la pomme. you have taken the apple 3MSG 3FSG ‘You took the apples.’ F′ Now we have a place for nonfinite main verbs to move, past adverbs but under negation. They can move to F.  3MSG 3FPL pas Neg′ Neg ne Vous avez pris les pommes. you have taken the apples  Quelle pomme avez-vous prise? Which apple have you taken 3FSG 3FSG ‘Which apple did you take?’ AdvP V′ souvent V A new FP   It appears that when an object has to cross FP, the verb shows agreement with it. Why? A new FP CP  C′ DPi C   TP DPk T′ T  PP This only happens when the object has to move. When the object must not be trapped in its original position. This sounds like… FP  t i′ F′ F VP V′ tk ti V A new FP  So, suppose that FP has an uninterpretable feature (that attracts the object) that can be strong, optionally.     It’s strong if it has to be, if the object will get trapped otherwise. It’s weak if it doesn’t have to be strong (the system is lazy, strong features are work). If it’s strong, the object moves into SpecFP and the features are checked. When the verb moves up to F and on to T, if the feature of F was strong, the agreement features are realized in the verbal morphology. Well, it sounds like phases are involved. Suppose FP is a phase. If we need to move the object to SpecCP (e.g. what), we darn well better get it to the edge of the phase before the phase is finished. C C′ TP T′ T  FP t i′   F′ F VP  V′ tk V ti T′ T There are some technical issues here, that we’re going to ignore for now. How the subject gets out is one. There are things we can say. For example, we might suppose that the “edge” of the FP phase is larger, and includes SpecvP, but not VP or anything inside. That is, VP gets frozen when the FP phase ends. What might that feature be that attracts the object and not the subject?  DPk TP DPk FP t i′ F′ F VP V′ tk A new FP  C C′ DPi ti V CP DPi CP [uφ:] doesn’t sound like a very good candidate, since subjects have φfeatures too (and the subject is closer to F than the object is). What differentiates objects and subjects? Well, case would. Suppose that F has a [ucase:acc] feature that is optionally strong. (This means that we assume now that F, not v, is responsible for accusative case). Also, for this to work, we’d have to suppose that the object has a [ucase:acc] feature to begin with (rather than a [ucase:] feature to be valued). CP DPi C C′ TP DPk T′ T FP t i′ F′ F VP V′ tk V ti 3 AgrOP  AgrOP, Object agreement phrase. The verb moves up to T, stopping at AgrO along the way. If the object has to get out of VP, then AgrO will have a strong [acc] feature, forcing the object to move into its specifier first (to get out of the FP phase). If the [acc] feature was strong when it was checked, the verb shows agreement.     ECM CP DPi C′ C TP DPk T  T′ AgrOP  t i′ AgrO′ AgrO VP V′ tk ti V … AgrOP can solve a TP serious problem we had in English too… T′ DPi Here’s the current way Bill T VP we analyzed ECM sentences, where me t V′ i gets Case from want. The thing is, the V TP wants embedded subject actually acts like it’s in DPk T′ 1sg the matrix clause T VP somewhere. to tk V leave TP ECM ECM v. BT      Mary wants her to leave. Bill considers himself to be a genius.      Our options are basically to   T If Before we said that the binding domain for anaphors and pronouns was a clause (say, TP). Her and himself above act like they are in the higher clause with the main clause subject. T′ DPi Bill There is an AgrOP and Normal objects generally go there and ECM subjects act like objects AgrOP DPk AgrO′ 1sg AgrO VP ti V TP wants T′ tk ′ Then complicate the definition of binding domain in Binding Theory suppose the object has really moved out of the embedded clause.  V′ We can suppose that ECM subjects move there. T to VP tk V leave TP ECM     Great! But this isn’t the surface word order.  *Bill me wants to leave. It seems to be moving (it makes BT work better) but we don’t see it move. Yes, another case of “covert” movement. AgrOP T′ DPi Bill T AgrOP  DPk AgrO′ 1sg AgrO VP ti  Let’s take stock here for a second. French told us:   V′  How does the object get to AgrOP?  V TP wants T′ tk ′  Finish the FP phase, commit the pronunciation, then move the object. T to VP tk What differentiates the subject and object is case. So AgrOP is what’s responsible for accusative Case. Not v. We solved an apparent problem with Binding Theory.   There needs to be an FP between NegP and VP. Objects that move past FP have to stop there (inducing object agreement)—so FP is AgrOP. ECM subjects seem to be in the higher clause: Bill considers himself to be a genius. Mary wants her to leave. V leave 4 An AgrO you can see?    Northern Irish So, yet another invisible head, inducing invisible movement. Great. Have you syntacticians no shame?  Recall from earlier this semester that Irish is VSO, but yet seems to be SVO underlyingly:   Phóg Máire an lucharachán. kissed Mary the leprechaun ‘Mary kissed the leprechaun.’  Tá Máire ag-pógáil an lucharachán. Is Mary ing-kiss the leprechaun ‘Mary is kissing the leprechaun.’ So, basically everything points to Irish being a headinitial language. But yet, there’s this: Ba mhaith liom [Seán an abairt aL scríobh] C good with.1S S.ACC the sentence.ACC PRT write ‘I want S to write the sentence.’ S writing the sentence is good with us (lit.)  (cf. also I want him to meet me)  If an auxiliary occupies the verb slot at the beginning of the sentence, the main verb appears between the subject and verb. Otherwise, the verb moves to first position. Ba mhaith liom [Seán fanacht] C good with.1S S.ACC wait ‘I want S to wait.’ C′ AgrSP? Morphology on French verbs      Past, varying persons: ‘eat’ je mange-ai-s tu mange-ai-s il mange-ai-t Fut, varying persons: je mange-er-ai ‘eat’ tu mange-er-as il mange-er-a Tense morphology is inside and separate from subject agreement morphology. Kind of looks like after tense, another, subject-agreeing morpheme is attached…     AgrOP, Object agreement phrase. AgrSP, Subject agreement phrase? Pleasingly symmetrical! Suppose now that AgrSP is responsible for [nom], the EPP [uD*] is a property of T, AgrOP is responsible for [acc]. Why the subject agreement on French verbs?  [[[[v+V]+AgrO]+T]+AgrS] C AgrSP DPk AgrS′ AgrS TP T′ t i′ T AgrOP DPk AgrO′ AgrO VP V′ tk V ti C′ Split-INFL   The assumption of this structure is sometimes referred to as the “SplitINFL” hypothesis; the INFLectional nodes have been “split” into subject agreement, tense, and object agreement. Recall from “history” lessons that what we call TP used to be called “IP” or “InflP”. Hence: SplitINFL. C Adopting the Split-INFL hypothesis AgrSP AgrS′ AgrS TP  T′ T AgrOP  AgrO′ AgrO  VP V′ DP V DP Lots of good syntax has been done both adopting the SplitINFL hypothesis (trees contain AgrSP, TP, AgrOP) or not (trees contain only IP/TP/InflP). For many things, it doesn’t matter which you choose—analyses can be directly translated into a Split-INFL tree or vice-versa. Where it doesn’t matter, it doesn’t matter, but sometimes it matters.  On the final and in the homework, for example, it doesn’t matter. Stick with vP and TP on the final and homework. But know about AgrOP and AgrSP for future interactions with (particularly slightly older) articles in syntax. 5  Adopting the Split-INFL hypothesis        The general program is that every dissociable piece of the structure should get its own place in the lexicon, its own functional head…   Subject agreement is basically common across verbs, an independent piece. Tense too is an independent piece. And object agreement And… plural marking… and progressive -ing, aspectual -en, …   We interpret Bill saw everyone as For every person x, Bill saw x. This is the meaning. This is the logical form of the sentence Bill saw everyone. In the notation of formal logic, this is written as ∀x. Bill saw x ‘For all x (x a person), Bill saw x.’ Quantifiers     Quantifiers  These phrases which don’t refer to specific people/things in the world but rather seem to do things to sets of people/things are quantifiers. Examples include:      most students twelve angry men fewer than half of the members some custodian nobody in their right mind   Quantifiers    In Syntax II, we’ll spend a lot of the semester looking at places in the tree where functional projections need to be added.   Every boy hates his roommate. Notice that each boy hates a different roommate, the roommates are specific to each boy. For every boy x, x hates x’s roommate. This means that every boy doesn’t just mean the group of boys; rather it goes through the set of boys and says something about each of them individually. QP    What is the category of a quantifier like most students? DP Well, it goes basically in all the same NP D every student places a DP goes. Like which student or what or who. So, like what we said for wh-phrases, quantifier phrases are really DPs with an extra property (they’re quantificational). Sometimes people write QP, but they mean ‘a quantificational DP’. 6 Restrictions      Quantifiers To reiterate, quantifiers are used to say something about individuals in a set. Most students like syntax. The set (sometimes, restriction) is the set of students. This says that, if you check all of the students individually to see if each likes syntax, you’ll find that most (more than half) of the students you checked do. For each x in students, does x like syntax? Did we answer “yes” for most of the ones we checked?     To write the logical form (meaning) of a sentence with one of these, you put the quantifier first, and replace where it came from with a variable: Most students eat at Taco Bell. For most students x, x eats at Taco Bell No administrators eat at Taco Bell. For no administrator x, x eats at Taco Bell Mary likes every flavor of ice cream. For every flavor of ice cream x, Mary likes x Binding  Scope A quantifier is said to bind its variable. That is, the reference of the variable is assigned by the quantifier.   A student read every book. When is this true?    Bill read every book. For every book x, Bill read x  Is this true? Well, let’s go through the books. Moby Dick. Did Bill read Moby Dick? Yes. Ok, War and Peace. Did Bill read War and Peace? Yes. Ok, …  There are two meanings here, the sentence is ambiguous between two logical forms. Scope   A student read every book There is a student x such that for every book y, x read y or For every book y, there is a student x such that x read y It matters which quantifier comes first in the logical form. Mary, it turns out, has read all of the books. Nobody has read everything, but Mary read half of the books and Bill read the other half. Every book was read by a student. Scope   This is perfectly logical. A quantifier takes a set of individuals and checks to see if something is true of the individual members of the set. A student read every book. (Namely, Mary)     In the set of students, we find that it is true that for at least one student x: x read every book. In the set of students, we find that it is true that for at least one student x: In the set of books, we find that it is true that for each book y, x read y. There is a student x such that for every book y, x read y. ∃ x ∈ students : ∀ y ∈ books: x read y. 7 Scope  A student read every book. (They were all covered, though not necessarily by one student)     In the set of books, we find that it is true that for each book x: a student read x. In the set of books, we find that it is true that for each book x: In the set of students, we find that it is true that for at least one student y, y read x. For every book x, there is a student y such that y read x. ∃ x ∈ books: ∀ y ∈ students: y read x. LF     QR    Sue read every book. For every book x, Sue read x. Covert movement again: the quantifier moves to a position above the sentence, so there is then a direct mapping between the structure and the logical form. But only after the pronunciation has been fixed.    QR  Sue read every book. For every book x, Sue read x. [every book]i [IP Sue read ti ]. This movement is called Quantifier Raising (QR), and it happens to every quantifier before LF. Sue read every book. For every book x, Sue read x. [every book]i [IP Sue read ti ]. As with wh-movement, the trace is the variable at logical form—moving quantifiers is a way to establish a quantifier-variable structure. Quantifiers and binding      (either Mary was in the house or the dog was) This (above) is a syntactic ambiguity, depending on where the PP in the house is attached. If there are two different interpretations, there are two different structures. Two different LFs. QR [every book]i [IP Sue read ti ].  We think about this kind of ambiguity in much the same way we think about Mary heard a dog bark in the house. Every girl aced her exams. [Every girl]i [ ti aced heri exams] For every girl x, x aced x’s exams Not only the trace of QR, but also pronouns, can be bound by the quantifier, their referent determined by the quantifier. 8 Quantifiers and binding  [Every girl]i [ ti aced heri exams]    Binding (assigning reference) is subject to c-command. A quantifier can only assign reference to a variable (its trace and possibly other pronouns) which it c-commands. Her brother said that every girl aced her exams. The things which a quantifier c-commands are said to be in its scope. WCO       Quantifiers can only bind variables in their scope.  WCO   [Every girl]i [IP ti likes heri roommate]. For every girl x, x likes x’s roommate. ACD     [Every girl]i [IP heri roommate likes ti ]. For every girl x, x’s roommate likes x.    Answer: WCO again. But WCO is about moving a quantifier over a variable—so if WCO rules out this meaning, there must have been movement. There must have been QR. A movement we couldn’t see. VP ellipsis     Mary bought a record and Bill bought a tape. ≠ Mary bought a record and Bill did too. VP ellipsis is allowed when a preceding VP is identical. To interpret this, you need to use the content of the preceding VP. Mary bought a record and Bill did (buy a record) too. Now, let’s look at weak crossover again. Every girl likes her roommate. For every girl x, x likes x’s roommate. Her roommate likes every girl. For every girl x, x’s roommate likes x. Why can’t the second sentence have this meaning? Here’s another reason to believe in QR, antecedent contained deletion. This one’s kind of complicated, so hang on tight. First, we need to talk about VP ellipsis. Mary bought a record, and Bill did too. [IP Mary -ed [vP buy a record]] and [IP Bill -ed [vP buy a record]] too. VP ellipsis     We will consider the process of VP ellipsis to be one of deletion under identity. Underlyingly: -ed [vP Mary sleep] and -ed [vP Bill sleep] too. Before deletion: Mary -ed [vP t sleep] and Bill -ed [vP t sleep] too Pronunciation: Mary -ed [vP t sleep] and Bill -ed [vP t sleep] too Mary slept and Bill did too 9 VP ellipsis   So, as long as two VPs in sequence look identical (where traces of movement look identical to one another—they sound the same), we are allowed to pronounce the second one very quietly. Like an extreme case of Mary bought a record and Bill bought a record too. VP ellipsis     Note that identity is actually fairly abstract. John slept and Mary will too. John slept and Mary will sleep too. Before deletion: John -ed [vP t sleep] and Mary will [vP t sleep] too  ACD  Now, consider a DP with a relative clause: the record [Opi that Mary bought ti ].  Bill likes [the record that Mary bought].  ACD        Bill likes the record that Mary bought and Sue does too. Bill likes the record that Mary bought and Sue does (like the record that Mary bought) too.  Bill likes every book Mary does. Bill [vP likes every book Opi Mary [vP likes ti ]]. vP: likes [every book Op Mary likes t ] vP: likes t Those aren’t the same. VP ellipsis shouldn’t work, but yet it does. The deleted VP is contained in the antecedent VP (antecedent-contained deletion) QR and ACD         But now let’s consider what QR would do. Every book that Mary likes is a quantifier. Quantifiers have to move up past the subject by LF. Bill likes every book Mary does. Pronunciation (before covert movement): Bill [vP likes [every book Opj Mary [vP likes tj ]]]. LF: [every book Opj Mary [vP likes tj ]]i Bill [vP likes ti ]. But now the VPs are identical. So if we believe in QR, we can explain ACD sentences in a natural way. The inflectional features of v don’t matter for identity; the verb doesn’t inherently have a tense suffix. Where do quantifiers go?     Every student left. [Every student]i [IP ti left ] We need a variable in subject position, so QR must be moving the quantifier out of TP, to somewhere higher then TP. Believe me that it is also moving somewhere lower than CP. 10 Adjunction to TP Adjunction to TP   In order to accommodate this, we need to formulate a new position to which quantifiers move. TP QP  TP subj T′ T  vP This position is going to be adjoined to TP.  One difference between QR (adjunction to TP) and movement to SpecTP is in the motivations. Moving to SpecTP or moving to SpecCP is motivated by some need of T (EPP: T needs a DP in its specifier) or C ([Q] C needs a [+WH] in its specifier). Moving a quantifier (QR) is required because the quantifier needs to get out of the TP (for interpretation). TP itself has no need for quantifiers. TP QP TP subj T′ T vP Adjunction to TP  So, we could say that moving to Spec is something that happens if the moving thing is pulled (T is pulling up a subject to satisfy its TP own needs, not the needs of the QP TP moving subject) or pushed (quantifiers move to satisfy their subj T′ own needs, not the needs of the T). T   vP An XP that is pulled up goes into Spec. An XP that is pushed up adjoins. 11