Branches of Philosophy Guide

1ST QUARTERLY REVIEWER Philosophy Lesson 1: Branches of Philosophy Philosophy covers a wide and ever-evolving range of topics to address our ever-changing world. Naturally, there is some fluidity in categorizing philosophical branches and the subcategories of these branches. In general, the components of philosophy break down into these six branches: epistemology, metaphysics, logic, aesthetics, ethics, and political philosophy. Let’s review each one. 1. Epistemology ❖ It is the study of knowledge and belief. ❖ The term “epistemology” originated from the Greek word “episteme,” which means “knowledge.” ❖ Sample questions: ● How do we know that we know something? ● If we are living in a world of simulation, how can we know it? ● In what ways do our own experiences, biases, and beliefs shape our understanding of the world? 2. Metaphysics ❖ It is mainly concerned with the nature of being and the world (reality and existence). ❖ Traditionally, it has two different study areas, including cosmology and ontology. ❖ Cosmology is focused on understanding the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. ❖ Ontology investigates various types of things that exist and their relationship with each other. ❖ Sample questions: ● What is the nature of reality and the fundamental structure of the universe? ● Is the world a deterministic one? ● Do laws of nature govern the occurrence of events in time? 3. Logic ❖ It is focused on argumentation and reasoning. ❖ In logic, we usually construct two sentences which are called premises, and they are used to conclude. This sort of logic is called syllogism, pioneered by Aristotle. ❖ Sound syllogism is a form of argument that consists of two premises, and a conclusion, and in which the conclusion follows logically from the premises. It is sound if it is valid. ■ Premise 1: All humans are mortal. ■ Premise 2: Socrates is a human. ■ Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. ❖ Unsound syllogism is a form of argument that consists of two premises and a conclusion, and in which the conclusion does not follow logically from the premises. It is unsound if it is invalid. ■ Premise 1: All animals are birds. ■ Premise 2: All birds can fly. ■ Conclusion: Therefore, all animals can fly. ❖ Sample questions: ● Is truth relative, or a matter of opinion? ● Do all people deserve respect? ● Is one human life worth than another? 4. Aesthetics ❖ It is the study of beauty, art, and good taste. ❖ It has also been defined as “critical reflection on art, culture, and nature.” ❖ The word “aesthetics” derives from the Greek “aisthetikos,” meaning “of sense perception.” ❖ Sample questions: ● How does our cultural background influence our perceptions of art and beauty? ● How can we evaluate the value and significance of a work of art? ● What is the difference between subjective and objective criteria in aesthetics? 5. Ethics ❖ It is concerned with the study of morality; the definition of right and wrong. ❖ It makes us think about how to act in a given situation. ❖ Sample questions: ● When, if ever, is taking a human life justified? ● Should there be limitations on the right to free speech? ● Do business owners have the right to refuse service to customers? 6. Political Philosophy ❖ It studies political government, laws, liberty, justice, rights, and authority. ❖ It explores the concepts of why we need governments, the role played by governments, and what are its constituents, among others. ❖ Sample questions: ● If someone commits murder, do they still have the right to life? ● Is war ever justifiable? ● Does democracy guarantee individual liberty? Other notes: ★ Philosophical question ○ It is an inquiry that seeks to explore fundamental aspects of reality, knowledge, values, or existence. ○ These questions are typically abstract, and open-ended, and aim to address core issues that do not have straightforward or empirical answers. ○ They require deep reflection and analysis. ★ Importance of Philosophical Questions ○ Encourage critical thinking ○ Promote self-reflection ○ Foster intellectual exploration ○ Influence other disciplines ★ Why does man philosophize? ○ Philosophize means to engage in the practice of philosophy by contemplating, discussing, reasoning, or analyzing fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, and reality. ○ Plato: Men tend to wonder. ○ Rene Descartes: Men also tend to doubt. ○ Karl Jaspers: Men do philosophize because of their experience. Our daily experiences challenged our ideas and way of thinking. ○ Socrates: Men’s love for wisdom. Men’s desire for truth or seeking knowledge is not to claim ownership of it but to get to the bottom of things. ★ Conclusion ○ Studying Philosophy offers benefits like improved critical thinking, communication skills, and personal growth. It also prepares for various careers, promotes informed citizenship, and broadens knowledge of important issues and cultural contexts. Engaging with philosophical ideas and methodologies develops valuable skills and perspectives for personal and intellectual growth. Lesson 2: Doing Philosophy I. Holistic Perspective and Partial Point of View Holistic Perspective 1. Comprehensive: A holistic approach considers the entire system or issue. It takes into account all features, components, and relationships. 2. Interconnectedness: This method focuses on the relationships and interactions between different components of a system. It acknowledges that modifications in one component can have an impact on the entire system. 3. Contextual Understanding: It considers the greater context, which includes environmental, social, cultural, and historical elements. 4. Systemic Approach: Ecology, healthcare, and organizational studies are some applications where comprehending the entire system is critical. 5. Long-Term View: Instead, of focusing on immediate or short-term achievements, a holistic viewpoint frequently examines long-term consequences and sustainability. Partial Point of View 1. Focused: A partial point of view is focused on particular characteristics or components of a system or situation. It gives a thorough discussion of these components. 2. Isolated Analysis: This method may overlook or reduce the importance of interactions and relationships between various sections. 3. Limited Context: It frequently examines the topic from a confined perspective, sometimes neglecting larger implications or repercussions. 4. Reductionist Approach: Common in specialized areas or disciplines that need deep, focused knowledge on a certain issue, such as scientific research. 5. Short-Term or Specific Goals: A partial point of view may focus quick outcomes or narrow aims without taking into account larger implications. II. 1. ● ● 2. ● ● Some concrete examples of a holistic and partial point of view Healthcare: Holistic Perspective: A holistic approach to healthcare considers the patient's physical, mental, emotional, and social well-being. It includes factors such as lifestyle, diet, environment, and mental health. Treatment plans might involve a combination of medical interventions, counseling, lifestyle changes, and alternative therapies. Partial Point of View: A partial point of view in healthcare might focus solely on treating the symptoms of a disease with medication or surgery, without addressing underlying causes or considering the patient's overall well-being. Environmental Policy: Holistic Perspective: When addressing environmental issues, a holistic perspective would consider the ecological, economic, and social impacts of a policy. It would aim for sustainable solutions that balance environmental protection with economic growth and social equity. Partial Point of View: A partial point of view might focus on a single aspect, such as reducing carbon emissions, without considering how the policy might affect economic development or social equity. Both approaches have their uses, depending on the context and the objectives of the analysis. A holistic perspective provides a broad, integrated understanding of a system which is very important in doing philosophy, while a partial point of view offers a detailed, focused analysis of specific elements within that system. III. How to create a philosophical reflection from a holistic perspective? Creating a philosophical reflection from a holistic perspective involves considering all relevant aspects of a situation. Here’s how you can structure a holistic philosophical reflection: 1. Define the Scope ● Identify the Topic: Clearly define the topic or situation you are reflecting on. For example, you might choose to reflect on environmental ethics, the nature of consciousness, or social justice. ● Determine the Context: Understand the broader context, including historical, cultural, social, and scientific aspects related to the topic. 2. Explore Multiple Dimensions ● Ethical Dimension: Consider moral principles, values, and ethical implications. ● Epistemological Dimension: Reflect on the nature and limits of knowledge related to the topic. ● Metaphysical Dimension: Examine the fundamental nature of reality and existence as it pertains to the topic. ● Aesthetic Dimension: Consider the role of beauty, art, and sensory experiences. ● Practical Dimension: Look at practical consequences and applications in real life. 3. Integrate Diverse Perspectives ● Interdisciplinary Insights: Draw from various disciplines such as science, art, politics, and religion to enrich your reflection. ● Cultural and Historical Contexts: Consider how different cultures and historical periods have addressed the topic. ● Personal and Collective Views: Reflect on both individual experiences and collective societal views. 4. Synthesize and Analyze ● Identify Interconnections: Explore how different aspects of the topic are interconnected. For example, how ethical considerations impact practical applications or how metaphysical views influence epistemological perspectives. ● Seek Coherence: Aim for a balanced and coherent synthesis that integrates diverse elements into a unified whole. 5. Engage with Philosophical Traditions ● Dialogue with Philosophers: Engage with the works of relevant philosophers, both historical and contemporary, to understand how they have approached similar issues. ● Compare and Contrast: Compare different philosophical approaches and traditions to gain a comprehensive understanding. 6. Reflect on Implications ● Long-term Consequences: Consider the long-term implications and sustainability of the ideas and solutions proposed. ● Broader Impact: Reflect on the broader impact on society, the environment, and future generations. Let us use Climate Change as an example. Here are the aspects to consider while writing a philosophical reflection from a holistic perspective about the topic. 1. Ethical Considerations ● Intergenerational Justice: Climate change raises philosophical questions about our responsibility to future generations. Should current generations make sacrifices to ensure that the globe stays habitable for future generations? The concept of intergenerational fairness holds that we owe future generations the same opportunities for a good existence that we enjoy now. ● Global Justice: Climate change disproportionately affects poorer countries, which have contributed the least to the problem. This raises ethical questions about justice and equity. A holistic perspective emphasizes the significance of global cooperation and assistance for vulnerable groups in adapting to climate change. 2. Interconnectedness ● Ecological Systems: Recognizing the interconnection of all living things is critical from a philosophical standpoint. The Gaia hypothesis, for example, views Earth as a self regulating system with biological and physical components that interact. A comprehensive approach to climate change recognizes the interconnectedness of ecosystems as well as the need of biodiversity preservation. ● Human Systems: Climate change affects economic, social, and political systems. A holistic picture considers how these systems interact, as well as the effects of environmental policies on employment, healthcare, and social stability. 3. Epistemological Considerations ● Scientific Knowledge: Understanding climate change necessitates combining information from other scientific areas. A holistic epistemology emphasizes the contributions of climatology, oceanography, biology, and other disciplines in developing a full knowledge of the situation. ● Traditional Knowledge: Indigenous and local communities frequently have extensive ecological knowledge and employ sustainable techniques. A holistic approach values and combines various viewpoints with scientific facts, acknowledging their importance in generating adaptive tactics. 4. Philosophy of Technology ● Technological Solutions: The use of technology in combating climate change may be both good and bad. Renewable energy technologies, for example, provide environmentally friendly alternatives to fossil fuels. However, technical solutions must be examined holistically to minimize unexpected consequences, such as environmental harm caused by mining rare earth metals for solar panels and batteries. ● Technological Dependency: A comprehensive reflection takes into account the ethical implications of technology reliance, as well as the potential loss of conventional skills and expertise. 5. Moral Psychology ● Human Behavior: Understanding human behavior and motivation is essential for addressing climate change. Philosophically speaking, this entails investigating the psychological hurdles to pro-environmental conduct, such as cognitive dissonance, denial, and short-term thinking. ● Collective Action: A holistic perspective emphasizes the value of instilling a feeling of social responsibility and community action. Philosophical debates about collective intentionality and cooperation might help shape tactics for gaining public support and engagement. 6. Aesthetic and Spiritual Dimensions ● Connection to Nature: Literature, art, and cultural narratives all help to shape attitudes toward the environment. A comprehensive perspective acknowledges the importance of narrative and cultural expression in raising awareness and encouraging action on climate change. ● Cultural Narratives: Literature, art, and cultural narratives all influence how people perceive the environment. A comprehensive assessment considers the importance of narrative and cultural expression in increasing awareness and motivating action on climate change. In a nutshell, a holistic perspective is essential in doing philosophy. It ensures a comprehensive, interconnected, and practical approach to philosophical inquiry, leading to deeper insights, more ethical and fair outcomes, and greater relevance to real-world issues. By embracing a holistic perspective, philosophers can better address the complexities of the human experience and contribute meaningfully to the advancement of knowledge and the betterment of society. Lesson 3: Theories of Truth ★ What is truth? ○ Refers to something true or real, which is backed by evidence, documentation, etc. ○ It is a proven truth. ○ It can be validated with pieces of evidence. ○ They are strictly defined and can be measured, observed, and proven. ○ It refers to something that makes statements true and is used in connection with research and study. ○ It is nothing but a verifiable truth or reality which are agreed upon by a consensus of people. ★ What is opinion? ○ It is what a person believes or thinks about something. ○ It is a personal view, that represents the outlook of an individual, which may or may not be based on the fact. ○ It is defined as the personal view or judgment about a subject, that may or may not be substantiated by facts or positive knowledge. ○ It is an inconclusive statement, used in subjective matters, which cannot be proved true or false. ○ It is what a person thinks or feels about something or someone. ○ It is highly influenced by a person’s feelings, thoughts, perspectives, desires, attitudes, experiences, understanding, beliefs, values, etc., which cannot be tested by concrete evidence. ★ Why truth is important? ○ Truth is important to clarify knowledge. ★ How do you know if something is true? ○ We have to examine the source of the information, assess the supporting evidence, be mindful of any biases, and use logical thinking. Theories of Truth 1. Realism ● Realism is a philosophy started by the ancient Greek writer, Aristotle. ● Born in Stagira, a Greek community in Thrace, Aristotle (384-322 BCE) was the son of a court physician. Having been a student of Plato, Aristotle earned his education in Plato’s Academy in Athens at a very young age. He was called the father of realism. ● Realism states that there is a true reality, and things exist whether humans perceive them or not. ● According to Aristotle, the key to understanding an object is to know its ultimate form, which is not subject to change. For example, with the idea of a dog, people can know the existence of objective realities because each piece of matter has universal and particular properties. 2. Relativism Theory ● According to relativism theory, truth as the object of knowledge cannot be known as it is in itself; it can only be known as it is modified by a person. This means that truth is always dependent on a person. Truth then is subjective and therefore relative to the perception of the subject. What is truth for one may not be truth for other individuals. 3. Pragmatism Theory ● William James was a prominent American philosopher and psychologist who is widely regarded as one of the founders of the pragmatism movement. Pragmatism, as a philosophical theory, emphasizes the practical consequences of ideas and beliefs. It suggests that the truth of an idea is determined by its usefulness or effectiveness in solving problems or achieving goals. 4. Correspondence Theory ● According to the correspondence theory, proposed by the Logical Positivist Bertrand Russell, truth is in what is said, in the propositions uttered. A proposition is true if it corresponds with a state of affairs or with facts. ● The Correspondence Theory of Truth states that the key to truth is the relation (or correspondence) between propositions and the world. This means that “a belief is true if there exists an appropriate entity—a fact—to which it corresponds. If there is no such entity, the belief is false.” 5. Coherence Theory of Truth ● The Coherence Theory of Truth insists that a belief is true if and only if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs. Lesson 4: Types of Fallacies ★ Arguments ● Series of statements that provide explanations to convince the listener or a reader that the opinion is truthful. ● In Philosophy, an argument is a series of statements called the premises, intended to determine the degree of truth of another statement, the conclusion. ● Not all arguments are true. Some arguments possess fallacious premise or statement. That is why we should evaluate arguments so we can avoid them. A fallacious argument may be deceptive by appearing to be better than it really is. ★ Fallacies ● Fallacy comes from the Latin word fallacia. It is a noun which means… ○ Wrong belief ○ A false or mistaken idea ○ The quality of being false or wrong ○ Trickery ○ Erroneous ○ An often plausible argument using false or invalid inference Types of Fallacies Fallacies of Ambiguity 1. Equivocation Fallacy ● The fallacy of equivocation is committed when a term is used in two or more different senses within a single argument. ○ Example 1: The church would like to encourage theism. Theism is a medical condition resulting from the excessive consumption of tea. Therefore, the church ought to distribute tea more freely. ○ Example 2: Christianity teaches that faith is necessary for salvation. Faith is irrational, it is belief in the absence of or contrary to evidence. Therefore, Christianity teaches that irrationality is rewarded. 2. Syntactic Ambiguity ● Syntactic ambiguity is when a phrase or grammatical construction is used which can be understood more than one way. ○ Example 1: Laurie calls her mother when she’s alone. (Who is alone, Laurie or her mother?) ○ Example 2: John told Henry that he had made a mistake. (Who made a mistake?) Fallacies of Relevance 1. Appeal to Pity ● An appeal to pity attempts to persuade using emotion—specifically, sympathy—rather than evidence. Playing on the pity that someone feels for an individual or group can certainly affect what that person thinks about the group; this is a highly effective, and so quite common, fallacy. ○ Example 1: I am a single parent, solely responsible for the financial support of my children. If you give me this traffic ticket, I will lose my license and be unable to drive to work. If I cannot work, my children and I will become homeless and may starve to death. Therefore, you should not give me this traffic ticket. ○ Example 2: Writing a philosophical paper consumes a lot of time. If I finish my philosophical paper today, I will not be able to do my other assignments and review for the upcoming quizzes. If I fail to do my assignments and review for upcoming quizzes, I will fail this quarter. Therefore, Sir Sauz should move the deadline for the philosophical paper. ● The Latin phrase for this is “argumentum ad misericordiam.” 2. Appeal to Force ● In the appeal to force, someone in a position of power threatens to bring down unfortunate consequences upon anyone who dares to disagree with a proffered position. ○ Example 1: If you do not agree with my political opinions, you will receive a grade of F for this course. I believe that Herbert Hoover was the greatest President of the United States. Therefore, Herbert Hoover was the greatest President of the United States. ○ Example 2: If you do not follow my rules as your partner, I will leave you. Tiburcio Asuncion wants me to send him a text message from time to time for the updates even if I’m in the middle of the class. Therefore, Tiburcio Asuncion loves me very much and the LOML. ● The Latin phrase for this is “argumentum ad baculum.” Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence 1. Fallacy of Composition ● The fallacy of composition is the fallacy of inferring from the fact that every part of a whole has a given property that the whole also has that property. ○ Example: Every song on the album lasts less than an hour. Therefore, the album lasts less than an hour. 2. Appeal to Authority ● An appeal to authority is an argument from the fact that a person judged to be an authority affirms a proposition to the claim that the proposition is true. ○ Example 1: 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Marilyn vos Savant says that no philosopher has ever successfully resolved the problem of evil. Therefore, no philosopher has ever successfully resolved the problem of evil. ○ Example 2: Federal Reserve Chair Alan Greenspan believes that spiders are insects. Therefore, spiders are insects. ● The Latin phrase for this is “argumentum ad auctoritate.” Appeal to Popularity ● Appeals to popularity suggest that an idea must be true simply because it is widely held. This is a fallacy because popular opinion can be, and quite often is, mistaken. ○ Example 1: Most believe in a god or ‘higher power.’ Therefore, God, or at least a higher power, must exist. ○ Example 2: Of course, you want to buy a pair of slinky fashion jeans. Slinky jeans really show off your figure, and all the Hollywood starlets down on the Strip can be seen wearing them these days. Appeal to Ignorance ● An appeal to ignorance proposes that we accept the truth of a proposition unless an opponent can prove otherwise. ○ Example 1: No one has been able to disprove the existence of God. Therefore, God exists. ○ Example 2: No one has conclusively proven that there is no intelligent life on the moons of Jupiter. Therefore, there is intelligent life on the moons of Jupiter. Complex Question Fallacy ● The complex question fallacy is committed when a question is asked (a) that rests on a questionable assumption, and (b) to which all answers appear to endorse that assumption. ○ Example 1: “Have you stopped beating your wife?” ○ Example 2: “Are you going to admit that you’re wrong?” Hasty Generalization ● A hasty generalization draws a general rule from a single, perhaps atypical, case. It is the reverse of a sweeping generalization. ○ Example: My atheist neighbor is a real grouch. Therefore, atheists are grouches. Appeal to Hypocrisy ● The appeal to hypocrisy is committed when it is assumed that because someone else has done a thing there is nothing wrong with doing it. This fallacy is classically committed by children who, when told off, respond with “So and so did it too,” with the implied conclusion that there is nothing wrong with doing whatever it is that they have done. ○ Example: The Romans kept slaves. Therefore, we can keep slaves too. False Cause Fallacy ● The false cause fallacy is committed when it is assumed that because one thing occurred after another, it must have occurred as a result of it. ○ Example 1: The rooster crows always before the sun rises. Therefore, the crowing rooster causes the sun to rise. ○ Example 2: Cell phone usage has increased exponentially in the last 20 years. Researchers discovered that the incidences of brain cancer have also increased in that time. Therefore, cellphone usage must cause brain cancer. ○ Example 3: Last week I vaccinated my child. Today he began autistic. Therefore, the vaccine caused autism. ★ Conclusion ● We should not take the methods of philosophizing for granted. This lesson presented the general principles involved in reasoning to arrive at truth. Though emotions can be more persuasive, in the long run, correct reasoning will prove to be the most solid foundation.