When all the Good Men are Gone - Sex Ratio and Domestic Violence in Post-Genocide Rwanda (Tables and Appendix)

Table 1: The impact of sex ratio on women’s marital status by age group (1) Married Age 20-24 Change Sex Ratio*Post-genocide (2) Single Age 20-24 (3) Married Age 25-29 (4) Single Age 25-29 (5) Married Age 30-39 (6) Single Age 30-39 -0.526 0.534 -0.527** 0.532*** -0.546** 0.194* [0.395] [0.500] [0.253] [0.187] [0.195] [0.0983] The dependent variable in each regression is the percentage of women in the given age group with the stated marital status, in either 1991 or 2002. The percentage of single women does not include widows. All regressions include a post genocide dummy and province fixed effects. The number of observations in each regression is 22. Standard errors are clustered at the province-year level. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the whole sample Variable Obs Mean Std. Dev. Ever victim of domestic violence 1698 0.354 0.478 Current use of contraception 4066 .183 .387 Woman has final say large purchases 4059 .178 .383 Woman has daily say daily purchases 4063 .325 .468 Husband thinks violence is justified 1620 .216 .412 Age at marriage 1698 20.274 3.274 Years since marriage 1698 12.332 8.427 Year since marriage squared /10 1698 22.305 25.726 Year since marriage cubic /100 1698 48.378 74.130 Cohabitating 1698 0.358 0.479 Divorced 1698 0.000 0.000 Separated 1698 0.000 0.000 Adventist 1681 0.137 0.344 Protestant 1681 0.341 0.474 Muslim 1681 0.010 0.098 Other 1681 0.016 0.126 Woman’s years of education 1697 3.795 3.279 Husband’s years of education 1698 4.306 3.649 urban 1698 0.131 0.337 Woman’s occupation: Prof., Cler., Sales 1694 0.059 0.236 Woman’s occupation: Agriculture 1694 0.690 0.463 Woman’s occupation: Manual 1694 0.014 0.116 Woman’s occupation: Not working 1694 0.237 0.426 Husband’s occupation: Prof., Cler., Sales 1667 0.101 0.301 Husband’s occupation: Agriculture 1667 0.743 0.437 Husband’s occupation: Manual 1667 0.143 0.351 Husband’s occupation: Army 1667 0.013 0.113 Wealth: Poorest 1698 0.205 0.404 Wealth: Poorer 1698 0.216 0.412 Wealth: Middle 1698 0.194 0.396 Wealth: Richer 1698 0.215 0.411 Wealth: Richest 1698 0.170 0.376 Year of birth 1985-1990 1698 0.025 0.157 Year of birth 1980-1984 1698 0.211 0.408 Year of birth 1975-1979 1698 0.217 0.412 Year of birth 1970-1974 1698 0.190 0.392 Year of birth 1965-1969 1698 0.123 0.329 Year of birth 1960-1964 1698 0.135 0.342 Year of birth 1955-1959 1698 0.098 0.298 Sex ratio* 1698 0.692 0.116 % Literacy men* 1698 0.673 0.049 Male employment formal sector* 1698 0.128 0.123 Source: 2005 Rwanda Demographic and health Survey *Source: 1991 and 2002 Census of Rwanda Min 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.569 0.613 0.059 Max 1 1 1 1 1 37 35 122.5 428.75 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 18 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.152 0.867 0.728 Table 3. Descriptive statistics for those who married before the genocide Variable Obs Mean Std. Dev. Min Ever victim of domestic violence 661 0.403 0.491 0 Current use of contraception 1810 .198 .398 0 Woman has final say large purchases 1806 .229 .421 0 Woman has final say daily purchases 1808 .379 .486 0 Husband thinks violence is justified 695 .231 .422 0 Age at marriage 661 19.859 3.233 11 Years since marriage 661 20.213 5.764 11 Year since marriage squared /10 661 44.172 24.326 12.1 Year since marriage cubic /100 661 103.144 82.492 13.31 Cohabitating 661 0.210 0.407 0 Divorced 661 0.000 0.000 0 Separated 661 0.000 0.000 0 Adventist 654 0.138 0.345 0 Protestant 654 0.288 0.453 0 Muslim 654 0.009 0.096 0 Other 654 0.020 0.140 0 Woman’s years of education 661 3.327 3.403 0 Husband’s years of education 661 3.823 3.632 0 urban 661 0.105 0.306 0 Woman’s occupation: Prof., Cler., Sales 659 0.045 0.207 0 Woman’s occupation: Agriculture 659 0.735 0.442 0 Woman’s occupation: Manual 659 0.010 0.100 0 Woman’s occupation: Not working 659 0.210 0.408 0 Husband’s occupation: Prof., Cler., Sales 642 0.105 0.307 0 Husband’s occupation: Agriculture 642 0.781 0.414 0 Husband’s occupation: Manual 642 0.113 0.316 0 Husband’s occupation: Army 642 0.001 0.036 0 Wealth: Poorest 661 0.211 0.408 0 Wealth: Poorer 661 0.241 0.428 0 Wealth: Middle 661 0.180 0.384 0 Wealth: Richer 661 0.213 0.410 0 Wealth: Richest 661 0.155 0.362 0 Year of birth 1985-1990 661 0.000 0.000 0 Year of birth 1980-1984 661 0.001 0.034 0 Year of birth 1975-1979 661 0.027 0.163 0 Year of birth 1970-1974 661 0.205 0.404 0 Year of birth 1965-1969 661 0.248 0.432 0 Year of birth 1960-1964 661 0.298 0.458 0 Year of birth 1955-1959 661 0.220 0.414 0 Sex ratio* 661 0.789 0.071 0.736 % Literacy men* 661 0.677 0.043 0.632 Male employment formal sector* 661 0.140 0.113 0.080 Source: 2005 Rwanda Demographic and health Survey *Source: 1991 and 2002 Census of Rwanda Max 1 1 1 1 1 31 35 122.5 428.75 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 17 18 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.152 0.867 0.728 Table 4. Descriptive statistics for those who married after the genocide Variable Obs Mean Std. Dev. Min Ever victim of domestic violence 1037 0.315 0.465 0 Current use of contraception 2256 .172 .378 0 Woman has final say large purchases 2253 .137 .344 0 Woman has final say daily purchases 2255 .281 .449 0 Husband thinks violence is justified 925 .204 .404 0 Age at marriage 1037 20.610 3.270 12 Years since marriage 1037 5.929 3.202 0 Year since marriage squared /10 1037 4.540 3.837 0 Year since marriage cubic /100 1037 3.884 4.155 0 Cohabitating 1037 0.478 0.500 0 Divorced 1037 0.000 0.000 0 Separated 1037 0.000 0.000 0 Adventist 1027 0.137 0.344 0 Protestant 1027 0.385 0.487 0 Muslim 1027 0.010 0.100 0 Other 1027 0.013 0.113 0 Woman’s years of education 1036 4.176 3.125 0 Husband’s years of education 1037 4.699 3.617 0 urban 1037 0.152 0.359 0 Woman’s occupation: Prof., Cler., Sales 1035 0.071 0.256 0 Woman’s occupation: Agriculture 1035 0.653 0.476 0 Woman’s occupation: Manual 1035 0.017 0.128 0 Woman’s occupation: Not working 1035 0.260 0.439 0 Husband’s occupation: Prof., Cler., Sales 1025 0.097 0.296 0 Husband’s occupation: Agriculture 1025 0.713 0.453 0 Husband’s occupation: Manual 1025 0.168 0.374 0 Husband’s occupation: Army 1025 0.022 0.147 0 Wealth: Poorest 1037 0.200 0.400 0 Wealth: Poorer 1037 0.196 0.397 0 Wealth: Middle 1037 0.206 0.404 0 Wealth: Richer 1037 0.216 0.412 0 Wealth: Richest 1037 0.183 0.386 0 Year of birth 1985-1990 1037 0.046 0.209 0 Year of birth 1980-1984 1037 0.382 0.486 0 Year of birth 1975-1979 1037 0.370 0.483 0 Year of birth 1970-1974 1037 0.178 0.383 0 Year of birth 1965-1969 1037 0.022 0.145 0 Year of birth 1960-1964 1037 0.002 0.047 0 Year of birth 1955-1959 1037 0.000 0.000 0 Sex ratio* 1037 0.613 0.079 0.569 % Literacy men* 1037 0.670 0.053 0.613 Male employment formal sector* 1037 0.117 0.129 0.059 Source: 2005 Rwanda Demographic and health Survey *Source: 1991 and 2002 Census of Rwanda Max 1 1 1 1 1 37 11 12.1 13.31 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 18 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0.898 0.846 0.594 Table 5: Sex ratio among non-institutionalized individuals Province Sex ratio Sex ratio Change in Sex ratio Perpetrators 1991 2002 (1991-2002) from Gacaca City of kigali 1.152 0.898 -0.254 5629 Kigali ngali 0.821 0.585 -0.236 87433 Gitarama 0.778 0.593 -0.185 91461 Butare 0.780 0.581 -0.199 78037 Gikongoro 0.770 0.629 -0.141 42366 Cyangugu 0.794 0.616 -0.177 39395 Kibuye 0.756 0.569 -0.187 57279 Gisenyi 0.764 0.572 -0.193 26835 Ruhengeri 0.736 0.583 -0.153 14477 Byumba 0.775 0.633 -0.142 17217 Kibungo 0.795 0.580 -0.216 59547 Correlation with sex ratio in 2002 -0.515 Data from the Rwandan Census of Population and Friedman (2011) The sex ratio is defined as the ratio of the number of males aged 20 to 44 to the number of females aged 15 to 39 Table 6: The marriage market and domestic violence (1) (2) (3) (4) Ever victim of domestic violence Sex ratiop,t -2.537*** -2.566*** -1.957* -2.001* [0.655] [0.659] [0.959] [0.972] -0.874 -1.086 -0.922 [0.910] [0.954] [0.967] -0.870 -0.592 [0.983] [0.996] % Literate menp,t Formal sector employmentp,t Post-genocide Age at marriage Informal marriage Adventist Protestant Muslim Woman’s years of school Husband’s years of school Urban -0.486*** -0.503*** -0.430** -0.437** [0.126] [0.128] [0.154] [0.156] -0.019** -0.019** -0.019** -0.021** [0.010] [0.010] [0.010] [0.010] 0.067** 0.067** 0.067** 0.045 [0.029] [0.029] [0.029] [0.030] -0.029 -0.029 -0.029 -0.030 [0.040] [0.040] [0.040] [0.040] -0.018 -0.018 -0.018 -0.022 [0.029] [0.029] [0.029] [0.030] -0.034 -0.034 -0.034 -0.075 [0.105] [0.105] [0.105] [0.114] 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 [0.005] [0.005] [0.005] [0.005] -0.009** -0.009** -0.009** -0.008* [0.004] [0.004] [0.004] [0.004] -0.028 -0.028 -0.028 -0.017 [0.042] [0.042] [0.042] [0.045] Polygynous household 0.188*** [0.051] Constant Observations R2 3.564*** 4.350*** 4.446*** 4.273*** [0.735] [1.103] [1.123] [1.139] 1,680 0.403 1,680 0.403 1,680 0.403 1,642 0.410 Standard errors in brackets estimated using Donald-Lang two-step procedure. Covariates include years since marriage, entered as a cubic; dummies for the woman’s and the husband’s occupation (column 4 only); 5 year cohort dummies; dummies for quintiles of the distribution of a wealth index; province fixed effects. All regressions are estimated using apposite weights for the domestic violence module. Table 7: Robustness checks (1) (2) (3) (4) Ever victim of domestic violence Drop unions Drop Keep divorced Control for sibling 1994-1996 movers and separated death in 1994 Sex ratiop,t % Literate menp,t Formal sector employmentp,t Post-genocide -2.293** -2.048* -4.372** -1.954* [0.768] [0.930] [1.347] [0.955] -0.905 -1.739 -2.574* -1.067 [0.763] [0.924] [1.339] [0.949] -0.787 -0.301 0.734 -0.861 [0.786] [0.953] [1.380] [0.978] -0.413** -0.415** -0.818*** -0.428** [0.123] [0.149] [0.216] [0.153] sib_dead1994 -0.012 [0.056] sib_dead1994_PG -0.025 [0.068] Age at marriage Informal marriage Woman years of school Husband years of school Urban Constant Observations R2 -0.018* -0.022** -0.026* -0.019* [0.011] [0.009] [0.013] [0.010] 0.104*** 0.023 0.074* 0.067** [0.033] [0.029] [0.041] [0.029] 0.004 0.003 0.013* 0.006 [0.005] [0.005] [0.007] [0.005] -0.009* -0.008* -0.002 -0.009** [0.005] [0.004] [0.006] [0.004] -0.050 -0.030 -0.028 -0.027 [0.049] [0.042] [0.059] [0.043] 4.518*** 5.017*** 7.578*** 4.420*** [0.899] [1.089] [1.577] [1.118] 1,384 0.414 1,818 0.422 904 0.441 1,680 0.403 Standard errors in brackets estimated using Donald-Lang two-step procedure. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Standard errors in brackets estimated using Donald-Lang two-step procedure. Covariates include years since marriage, entered as a cubic; dummies for the woman’s and the husband’s occupation (column 4 only); 5 year cohort dummies; dummies for quintiles of the distribution of a wealth index; religion; province fixed effects. All regressions are estimated using apposite weights for the domestic violence module. Table 8: Husband’s education and age at marriage VARIABLES Sex Ratiop,t (1) Husband’s years of education (2) Husband’s years of education (3) Age at marriage 5.990** 4.934* -5.070 [2.323] [2.423] [3.050] Primary education*Sex ratiop,t 2.467*** [0.826] Post-genocide Primary education Age at marriage urban % Literate Menp,t Employment in formal sectorp,t Constant Observations R2 1.610*** 1.563*** 4.651*** [0.451] [0.454] [0.490] 2.396*** 0.655 [0.145] [0.583] 0.064*** 0.061*** [0.021] [0.021] 1.230*** 1.240*** 0.046 [0.279] [0.280] [0.138] 5.605*** 4.776** 4.361 [1.942] [1.873] [4.100] 4.174** 3.125 -0.308 [1.996] [1.920] [3.218] -10.889*** -8.764*** 22.205*** [2.269] [2.313] [4.629] 5,084 0.213 5,084 0.214 5,084 0.316 The regression controls for province and cohort fixed effects Robust standard errors clustered at the province-time level in brackets *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Table 9: Bargaining power, contraception and attitude towards violence Sex ratiop,t % Literate menp,t Formal sector employmentp,t Age at marriage Informal marriage Adventist Protestant Muslim Woman years of school Husband years of school (1) Wife has final say on large purchases (2) Wife has final say on daily purchases (3) Current use of contraception (4) Husband justifies violence 1.039 1.860* 1.167* -0.551 [0.766] [0.919] [0.563] [0.862] -0.067 -0.784 -1.047* -0.468 [0.651] [0.878] [0.494] [0.857] -0.785 -1.586** -0.945 0.654 [0.501] [0.647] [0.561] [0.883] -0.007*** -0.007** -0.008* -0.004 [0.002] [0.003] [0.005] [0.008] 0.057*** 0.027 -0.029** 0.048* [0.014] [0.017] [0.013] [0.026] 0.019 0.052** 0.002 -0.025 [0.019] [0.024] [0.020] [0.032] 0.033** 0.035** -0.046*** -0.069*** [0.014] [0.017] [0.013] [0.024] 0.111** 0.053 -0.083* -0.032 [0.056] [0.059] [0.049] [0.095] 0.007*** 0.010*** 0.014*** -0.008** [0.002] [0.003] [0.002] [0.004] 0.000 0.001 0.006*** -0.009*** [0.002] [0.002] [0.002] [0.003] N. children ever born 0.015*** [0.004] Constant Observations R2 -0.152 0.242 0.592 0.945 [0.810] [0.750] [0.407] [1.019] 4,059 0.221 4,063 0.387 4,066 0.272 1,620 0.270 Standard errors in brackets estimated using Donald-Lang two-step procedure. Covariates include years since marriage, entered as a cubic; 5 year cohort dummies; dummies for quintiles of the distribution of a wealth index; province fixed effects. Column (4) includes also 5 year dummies for the husband’s year of birth. All regressions are estimated using apposite weights for the core questionnaire; column(4) uses weights from the male questionnaire. Appendix Table A1: Sex ratio among non-institutionalized individuals Province Sex ratio Sex ratio Change in Sex ratio Perpetrators 1991 2002 (1991-2002) from Gacaca City of kigali 1.300 1.098 -0.202 5629 Kigali ngali 0.994 0.798 -0.196 87433 Gitarama 0.947 0.786 -0.161 91461 Butare 0.924 0.772 -0.152 78037 Gikongoro 0.931 0.808 -0.123 42366 Cyangugu 0.945 0.828 -0.117 39395 Kibuye 0.939 0.772 -0.167 57279 Gisenyi 0.928 0.771 -0.157 26835 Ruhengeri 0.900 0.802 -0.098 14477 Byumba 0.953 0.824 -0.129 17217 Kibungo 0.965 0.778 -0.187 59547 Correlation with sex ratio in 2002 -0.532 Data from the Rwandan Census of Population and Friedman (2011) The sex ratio is defined as the ratio of the number of males aged 20 to 44 to the number of females aged 20 to 44