A Little Bit of Angular Momentum

A little bit of angular momentum Quantum aspects of angular momentum: Space quantization The effect of angular motion appears in the radial Schrödinger equation as the repulsive centrifugal potential Ñ2 bHb + 1L ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ ÅÅÅÅÅÅ 2 m r2 In classical physics kinetic energy due to motion of a mass m on an arc of radius r is J2 J2 ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ = ÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅÅ2ÅÅ 2I 2mr Comparing the classical energy expression to the repulsive centrifugal potential, evidently we can identify bHb + 1L Ñ2 as the squared angular momentum of the electron. Evaluate the total centrifugal potential energy due to the motion of electrons in a mole of hydrogen atoms, assuming b = 1 (p electrons) and r = 1 Þ. Answer: 735 kJ/mol. Evaluate the total centrifugal potential energy due to the motion of electrons in a mole of hydrogen atoms, assuming b = 3 (f electrons) and r = 1 Þ. Answer: 4411 kJ/mol. We have learned that in addition to the quantum number b, there is the quantum number mb with 2 b + 1 values -b, -b + 1, …, b. These values of mb are interpreted as the possible values, in units of ◊ Ñ, of the projection of the angular momentum vector b along an axis (conventionally chosen to be the z axis). ◊ è!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ◊ Since the length of b is bHb + 1 Ñ > b Ñ, but since the largest projection of b along z is b Ñ ◊ (corresponding to the maximum value of mb ), (1) b can never be exactly parallel to the z axis, and (2) it can be oriented at only 2 b + 1 possible angles to the z axis. The restriction on orientation of the ◊ possible orientations of b in space is known as space quantization. ◊ Evaluate the possible angles the b can make with the z axis is b = 1. Answer: 135 °, 90 °, 45 °. ◊ As the value of b increases, b can be oriented closer to the z axis, and as b becomes very large, it can be nearly parallel to the z axis and can take nearly arbitrary orientation with respect to the z axis. Thus, for very large values of b, the effect of space quantization becomes insignificant. ◊ Evaluate the minimum angle that b can make with the z axis is b = 10, 100, and 1000. Answer: 17.5 ° and 5.7 °, 1.8 °. Spin angular momentum Electrons have an intrinsic magnetic moment that is found experimentally to be able to be aligned along a magnetic field with only two possible orientations. These alternative orientations are call up and down. Classically, a magnetic moment is equivalent to an electrical current in the plane perpendicular to the magnetic moment. Since electrons have electrical charge, when the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron was discovered, it was first thought that it was due to the current generated by the electrically charged electron spinning on its own axis, and for this reason the magnetic moment is referred to as the spin of the electron. In fact, the electron is not spinning, but nonetheless has a magnetic moment and this is still referred to as the electron spin. Since the "spin" of the electron can take just two orientation with respect to an applied magnetic field, it is interpreted as an angular momentum of quantum number s = 1 ê 2, since then it has only two possible projection quantum numbers ms = -1 ê 2, +1 ê 2. Since the electron is not actually spinning, its alternative spin states are not represented in terms of motion in physical space. Rather they are denoted as a for ms = +1 ê 2 and b for ms = -1 ê 2. Angular momentum operators A compact way of expressing the angular momentum properties of a the state of a quantum system is to label the state with the numerical values of the angular momentum quantum number J and the projection quantum number MJ as » J MJ \. The symbol J is used when we do not need to distinguish between orbital and spin momentum. Then we can express the angular momentum properties in terms of operators for the squared angular momentum and the angular momentum projection as J 2 » J , MJ \ = J HJ + 1L Ñ2 » J , MJ \, Jz » J , MJ \ = MJ Ñ » J , MJ \. For example, the angular momentum properties of a d electron with mb = -2 could be expressed as J 2 » J = 2 , MJ = -2\ = b2 » 2, -2\ = 2 H2 + 1L Ñ2 » 2, -2\ = 6 Ñ2 » 2, -2\, Jz » J = 2, MJ = -2\ = bz » 2, -2\ = -2 Ñ » 2, -2\ and the angular momentum properties of a spin down electron could be expressed as J 2 » J = 1 ê 2 , MJ = -1 ê 2\ = s2 b = 1 ê 2 H1 ê 2 + 1L Ñ2 b = 3 ê 4 Ñ2 b Jz » J = 1 ê 2 , MJ = -1 ê 2\ = sz b = -1 ê 2 Ñ b Two other operators operators are J≤ = Jx ≤ ÂJ y . These operators raise HJ+ ) or lower HJ- ) the value of the z projection quantum number MJ by one unit, J≤ » J , MJ \ = è!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!! J HJ + 1L - MJ HMJ ≤ 1L Ñ … J , MJ ≤ 1], and so are referred to as the raising HJ+ ) and lowering HJ- ) operators. Since there is a maximum possible value of MJ , the effect of the raising operator on a state with MJ = J is said to annihilate the state. For example, s+ a = è!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 ê 2 H1 ê 2 + 1L - 1 ê 2 H1 ê 2 + 1L Ñ … 1 ê 2, 3 ê 2 Hnot possible!L] = 0 Similarly, since there is a minimum possible value of MJ , the effect of the lowering operator on a state with MJ = -J is to annihilate the state. For example, s- b = è!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 ê 2 H1 ê 2 + 1L + 1 ê 2 H-1 ê 2 - 1L Ñ … 1 ê 2, -3 ê 2 Hnot possible!L] = 0 Show that s+ b = Ñ a and that s- a = Ñ b. à Composite spin angular momentum Angular momenta can combine together. An important example are the four symmetrized spin states of two electrons, state1 = aH1L aH2L state2 = bH1L bH2L state3 = aH1L bH2L + aH2L bH1L state4 = aH1L bH2L - aH2L bH1L The challenge is to determine what the are the values of the total angular momentum quantum number J and the projection quantum number Mz for such a combination. The way to determine the angular momentum properties of these combined spin states is to introduce the total spin momentum, ÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ S = s1 + s2 , and then to determine the effect of the operators for the squared total spin momentum ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ S 2 = Hs1 + s2 L ÿ Hs1 + s2 L = s1 2 + s2 2 + 2 s1 ÿ s2 , and z projection of the total spin momentum, S z = s1 z + s2 z , on each of the symmetrized states of two spins. For example, it will turn out below that the effect of S 2 on the two spin state state1 is S 2 state1 = 2 Ñ2 state1 . Since we know the general the eigenvalue of S 2 is SHS + 1L Ñ2 , we can conclude by setting 2 = SHS + 1L that S = 1, and so that state1 corresponds to a total spin angular momentum quantum number of 1. In a similar way, we can determine value of the spin projection quantum number Mz by determining the effect of Sz on each of the combined spin states. In particular, it will turn out below that Sz state1 = Ñ state1 . Since the general eigenvalue of Sz is Mz Ñ, this result means that Mz = 1 for state 1. These results mean that state1 can be represented as » S, Mz \ = » 1, 1\. Total spin momentum z projection To evaluate the effect of the total spin momentum z projection, we need to evaluate the effect of Sz on each of the states. Use the expression for Sz to show that the effect of Sz on state1 is Sz state1 = Ñ state1 and so that MS = 1 for state1 . Evaluate the effect of Sz on state2 , state3 , and state4 to show that their values of MS are -1, 0, and 0, respectively. Squared total spin momentum To evaluate the effect of the total angular momentum operator ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ S 2 = Hs1 + s2 L ÿ Hs1 + s2 L = s1 2 + s2 2 + 2 s1 ÿ s2 , ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ on a two spin state, we need to express 2 s1 ÿ s2 in terms of operators whose effect on spin states we know. We do this using raising and lowering operators each spin. Show that 2 Hs1 x s2 x + s1 y s2 y L = s1+ s2- + s1- s2+ , and so that ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ 2 s1 ÿ s2 = 2 s1 z s2 z + s1+ s2- + s1- s2+ Using the result of the previous problem, we can express the total angular momentum operator as ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ ÷÷÷◊ S 2 = Hs1 + s2 L ÿ Hs1 + s2 L = s1 2 + s2 2 + 2 s1 z s2 z + s1+ s2- + s1- s2+ Use this expression to show that the effect of S 2 on state1 is S 2 state1 = 2 Ñ2 state1 , and similarly for state2 and state3 . Based on the result of the previous problem, show that S = 1 for state1 , state2 , and state3 . Use the expression for S 2 above to show that the effect of S 2 on state3 is S 2 state4 = 0 and so that S = 0 for state4 Composite spin state labels We have already anticipate that state1 = aH1L aH2L can be represented as » S, Mz \ = » 1, 1\. Use the values that you have determined for S and MS to verify that the following » S, MS \ labelling of the other three composite spin states. state2 = bH1L bH2L = » 1, -1\ state3 = aH1L bH2L + aH2L bH1L = » 1, 0\ state4 = aH1L bH2L - aH2L bH1L = » 0, 0\