ROME'S Three Heirs

ROME’S THREE HEIRS (300-950) Introduction    Roman Christianity brought to Anglo-Saxons of Britain o Bede (672-735 CE) o Roman ideals adapted to meet new needs “Middle Ages” is a modern invention o Arguable that era 500-1500 is “modern age” o Foundations of modern political institutions were laid 3 new civilizations became “heirs” to Roman Empire o New Rome of Byzantium o Islam o Western European territories Justinian’s Imperial Ambitions   Most ambitious emperor since Constantine o From Latin-speaking Dardanian o Believed he was heir of the Principate established by Augustus Attempted to re-create the Roman Empire o General Belisarius invaded North Africa, Spain, and Italy  Some successes  Campaigns expensive; strained treasury o Growing strength of Sassanid Persia ended expansion o Justinian Plague  Worldwide plague  Further weakened empire o Codified Roman law  Law had become self-contradictory  Brought existing precedent into line with present circumstances  Compiled Corpus Juris Civilis  Influenced legal system of many nations o Attempted to re-create the Roman empire  Impact of reconquest on Italy  Aqueducts and irrigation cut and destroyed  Italy divided o Lombards controlled the north o Imperial territories in the south  North Africa o Remained in imperial hands for short time o Fell to Muslim armies in 7th century  Spain o Conflict between Arian Visigoths and Christian Romans o Visigoths fell to Muslims in 8th century Roman Empire of Byzantium   A successor to the Roman state o Historians see it as separate empire of Byzantium o Citizens saw themselves as inheritors of Rome’s legacy Threats and challenges o Persians  Conquest and plunder of Jerusalem  Heraclius routed the Persians; reconquered Jerusalem (627 CE) o Islam  By 650 CE, Arabs reclaimed most of Byzantine empire that was formerly Persian  Jerusalem in hands of Muslims  Constantinople threatened (677 CE)  Emperor Leo III defeated Arab (717 CE) Stability and Tumult in the Empire   Sources of stability o Internal politics within the empire were tumultuous o Success of empire based on efÏceient bureaucratic practices  Education  Religion  Economic activity  Entertainment  Army and navy  Sound economic base  Role of Constantinople as trade emporium  Stable gold and silver coinage  Agriculture Orthodoxy, iconoclasm, and identity o Religious orthodoxy important for shared identity and purpose o Emperors involved in intense religious debates Orthodoxy and Iconoclast Controversy  Iconoclastic controversy o Iconoclasts prohibited veneration of icons; considered them “graven” images o Traditionalists argued icons served as aids to worship, not objects of worship o Emperor Leo III initiated Iconoclast movement  Possibly influenced by Islam  Possible political considerations  Clash between emperor and monasteries o Resolved in 8th century o Consequences  Much religious art destroyed as a result of controversy  Opened a serious breach between East and West   Led to renewed emphasis on Orthodox faith as key to political unity Fear of heresy inhibited speculation Tradition and Innovation      Ancient Greek heritage important part of identity Homer: a model, textbook, and guide to morality Greek thought o Revered Plato and Thucydides o Aristotle regarded with less interest o Neglected Greek scientific and mathematical tradition o Preservation rather than innovation – hallmark of Byzantine classicism Education extended to both men and women o Educated upper-class women mingled freely with males o Females physicians, unlike the West Art and architecture o Church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom)  Symbolized the mysteries of Christian religion and holy knowledge  Exterior plain: interior filled with mosaics, gold leaf, and marble columns  Architectural uniqueness  Influence on West Muhammad and the Origins of Islam  Origins of Islam o Desert of Arabia, forbidding place o Arabs were tribal society o Trade networks; important towns  Mecca important part of trade route  Shrine of Kaaba o Muhammad (570-632 CE)  Early life  Born at Mecca (Quraish family)  Orphaned early  Married widow of rich trader  Religious epiphany (610 CE)  There is no god but Allah  Became an uncompromising monotheist  Called to be “the Prophet”  Ignored by Quraish of Mecca  Left Mecca for Yathrib (Medina) – the Hijrah (622 CE)  Start of Muslim calendar  Organized a religious community  Raids on Quraish caravans  Entered Mecca Muhammad and the Teachings of Islam  Muhammad and the Qur’an o Islam means “submission to the will of Allah” o “There is no god but Allah” – “There is no divinity but God” o Muhammad is the last greatest prophet o Teachings in the Qur’an vital; rituals and practices to ensure salvation  Qur’an considered direct link to Muhammad  Observance of the Five Pillars  Submission to the will of Allah  Frequent prayer  Ritual fasting  Giving of alms  Annual pilgrimage to Mecca (the Haji)  Community leaders (imam) but no priests, sacraments, or prescribed liturgy  Engage in work of conversion; aspire to unite the world in shared faith The Widening Islamic World     Muhammad’s death Succeeded by father-in-law Abu-Bakr o Caliph (deputy of the Prophet) o Military campaign against those who followed Muhammad but would not follow AbuBakr o Minimal resistance from Persian and Byzantine empires Umar o Syria, Antioch, Damascus, and Jerusalem falls (636 CE) o Persian capital falls (637 CE) o Persian empire falls (651 CE) o Byzantine Egypt falls (646 CE) o Move across North Africa o Conquered Visigoth Spain (711 CE) Explanations o Search for territory and treasure o Did not demand conversions o Lesser taxes in new territories, this preferable to old rulers Shi’ite-Sunni Schism   Caliph Uthman took power after death of Umar in 644 CE o Wealthy Umayyad family o Murdered in 656 CE Opponents to family rallied around Ali o Son-in-law of Muhammad o Murdered 661 CE o Umayyad family took power again   Shi’ites o Minority religious party o Insisted that only descendants of Ali and Fatimah (his wife) could rule the Muslim community (the umma) o Did not accept binding religious customs ( sunna) Sunnis o Accepted religious customers as binding o Sunnis are largest group within Islam o Shi’ite-Sunni schism continues to present day The Umayyad and Abbasid Dynasties    Westward-looking Umayyads o Capital at Damascus o Roman successor state? o Failed goal to conquer Constantinople Eastward-looking Abbasids o Led successful rebellion against Umayyads with help from Persians (750 CE)  After 750, Umayyad dynasty ruled only in Spain (al-Andalus) o Rule stressed Persian elements rather than Roman o New capital at Baghdad o The Arabian Nights o Harun al-Rashid (786-809 CE) Poor relations between Umayyads and Abbasids o Competed with each other another in literature and culture o Library at Córdoba had 400,000 volumes Islamic Commerce and Industry      Major trade routes Master of caravan routes Sea routes Important industries o Baghdad: glassware, jewelry, pottery, skills o Morocco and Spain: leather-working o Toledo: swords Paper: brought about revolution in record-keeping Islamic Social Structures and Foreign Relations  Mobility, opportunity, and status o Cosmopolitan and dynamic society o Geographic and social mobility o Religious devotion  Ulama – learned men who studied religion and religious law  Sufis – religious mystics, stressed contemplation, and ecstasy Treatment of women  Not treated as equals  Sign of man’s status  Qur’an allowed a man of four wives  Haram Islam’s neighbors o Abbasid takeover relieved Umayyad pressure on Byzantium o Franks of Gaul also benefited o Flow of silver from Abbasid empire – trade links across Europe o  Conversion of Northwestern Europe     Transitional period Gregory of Tours New atÝtudes o Break with the Roman past o Rather than continuation, a reconstruction Economic and political instability o Causes  Justinian’s effort to reconquer the West  Excessive Byzantine taxation of agricultural lands  Islamic raids o Western Europe  Urban life declined  Land passed out of cultivation  Too costly to maintain slaves  Coinage system broke down  Two-tier economy  Gold and silver among the wealth  Peasantry relied on barter o Political instability  Incessant wars between rules and lords  Inability to ensure peaceful succession  Rivalries Prosperous Kingdom of the Franks       Dynasty of Clovis o Successful transfer of power Survival of late Roman local administration Growth of monasteries Massive distribution of wealth Cultivating the rich, heavy soils of northern Europe o New technological developments o Warming climate Population growth Power of Monasticism      Rapid increase in new monastic houses (especially 7 th century) Close ties with local leaders or powerful families Located in rural areas o Christianized the countryside o Communities prospered, powerful incentive for conversion o Became politically powerful institutions Women and monastic life o Repositories for prayer o Repository for inconvenient women Conversion and missionary activity o Roman Christianity brought to southeastern England Papacy of Gregory the Great         Sought to create a more autonomous Latin church o Considered successor to Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine Necessity of penance for forgiveness of sins Concept of Purgatory Proper instruction and control of the Iaity Promoted song “Gregorian chant” Asserted his authority over all Western bishops Encouraged the Benedictine rule in all monasteries One of the first to articulate Church’s negative policy toward Jews o Jews’ alleged role in Christ’s crucifixion deprived them of rights in Christian world Merovingian Kings and Kingmakers • • • • Merovingian territories became weaker o Lost wealth as a result of quick spread and growth of monasteries o Series of short-lived kings and civil wars Pepin maior domus (great man of the house) for Merovingian kings (687 C.E.) o Began to exercise royal authority o Maintained fiction of loyal servant Charles “The Hammer” Martel (c. 688–741 C.E.) o Considered second founder (after Clovis) of the Frankish state o Battle of Tours (732 C.E.) o Developed alliances with English Benedictines in central Germany Pepin the Short (c. 715–768 C.E.) o Sought kingship o Coronation in 751 C.E. • Pope sought political and religious support, anointed Pepin king • Aid against Iconoclast Byzantine emperors • Aid against Lombards in central Italy o Integration of Frankish monarchy into papal-Benedictine orbit Reign of Charlemagne     Charlemagne (742-814, r. 768-814 CE) o United the Frankish kingdom through armed expeditions against common enemy  Italy, Germany, central Europe, Catalonia  Divine approval  Spoils of war  Forced conversion to Christianity  Subjugation and conversion ingrained in Western philosophy o Counts and local administration  Comites (followers) – “counts”  Administration of justice  Raising armies  Courts, tolls, and taxation  New coinage system  Reliance of written record  Special messengers – missi Leading a unified Christian society Kingship regarded as a divine ofÏce created by God to protect the Church o Recognized no distinction between religion and politics o Religion as central to justice and defense Religious authority o Appointed and deposed bishops o Reformed rules of worship o Ruthlessly prohibited pagan observances o Forcibly imposed basic Christian observances on Saxon peoples o Supervised and approved of papal elections o Protected pope from his many enemies Carolingians: Rise, Revival, and Collapse of the Empire    Carolingian renaissance o Patrons of poetry and learning o Court as an intellectual and cultural center  Profound influence on Western civilization  Learning was seen as the foundation of Christian wisdom o Alcuin of York (735 – 804 CE)  Collating, correcting, and copying texts  Carolingian miniscule Revival of the Western Roman Empire o Charlemagne’s coronation (Christmas Day, 800 CE) o Motivation for accepting title? o Consequences an legacy of title Collapse of the Carolingian empire o Louis the Pious (814-840 CE) – the empire disintegrated o o Charles the Bald, Louis the German, and Lothair Civil wars Viking Invasions         Established trading settlements in the North Sea, the Baltic, and Russia Waning power of Abbasid dynasty led to Wiking raids o Small raids at first, later larger armies o British Isles and divided Franks made easy targets Vikings controlled settlements in eastern England, Ireland, Scotland, and Normandy Viking settlements reached Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland Raids decreased with growing Christianization of Scandinavia Vikings assimilated quickly into European population Wiking legacy debated o Destruction of monasteries o Vikings not the only source of disorder  Civil wars o Vikings founded towns and contributed to trade development o Viking invasions helped tighten the cultural links that kept Europe together England became united as a result of fighting off Vikings o Alfred the Great (871-899 CE)  Reorganized the army, codified laws  Cultural regeneration patterned on Carolingian example  Anglo-Saxon culture rivals that of Latin Roman in England Disintegration of the Islamic World • • • • • Decline of the Abbasids o Ecological and economic crises in Tigris-Euphrates basin o Provinces gained more autonomy, kept more taxes o Unable to support mercenary armies or civil bureaucracy o Massive building projects drained treasury Growing power of regional rulers Division between Sunni and Shi’a o Further split within Shi’ites—Fatimids Independent kingdoms in Egypt Al-Andalus (Umayyad Spain) under attack by Christians Conclusion  Rome’s 3 heirs  Strengths and weaknesses  Relationships between Christian West, Byzantium, and Islam  New center of power