Introduction to Cost Management

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COST MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS FOR WRITING AND DISCUSSION tivity and quality. The advances in information technology have led to the creation of integrated relational databases that allow a variety of users to develop their own reports based on their particular needs. 1. A cost management system is primarily concerned with producing outputs for internal information users, using inputs and processes needed to satisfy management objectives. A cost management system is not bound by externally imposed criteria that define inputs and processes. Instead, the criteria that govern the inputs and processes are set by people within the company. A financial accounting system is primarily concerned with producing information for the company’s external information users. Cost management differs from financial accounting in the following major ways: (1) an internal focus, (2) an emphasis on the future, (3) freedom from GAAP and other mandatory rules, (4) a multidisciplinary scope, (5) an evaluation of individual segments within the firm, and (6) the provision of more detailed information. It has also fostered the implementation and use of more sophisticated accounting systems such as activity-based costing. Customer orientation, new product development, total quality management, time as a competitive factor, and efficiency require the accountant to create and track financial and nonfinancial measures of customer satisfaction, quality improvement, responsiveness, cycle time, target costs, cost, and productivity. Advances in the manufacturing environment are characterized by practices such as the theory of constraints, just-in-time, and automation. These changes are affecting such practices as inventory management and product costing. 2. The three broad objectives of a cost management information system are (1) to cost out products, services, and other cost objects; (2) to provide information for planning and control; and (3) to provide information for decision making. 5. Planning establishes performance standards, feedback compares actual performance with planned performance, and control uses feedback to evaluate deviations from plans. 3. The cost accounting system is a cost management subsystem designed to assign costs to products, services, and other objects as management needs specify. The operational control system is a cost management subsystem designed to provide accurate and timely feedback concerning the performance of managers and others relative to their planning and control of activities. 6. Cost management has the role of providing information to help identify opportunities for improvement and also provides an evaluation of the progress made in implementing the actions designed to create improvement. 4. Factors affecting the focus and practice of cost management are global competition, service industry growth, advances in information technology, advances in the manufacturing environment, customer orientation, new product development, total quality management, time as a competitive factor, and efficiency. Global competition means that companies are now competing with the best of the best. Accurate, timely, and relevant accounting data are crucial in appropriately managing costs. Service industry growth has led to the need for increased management accounting information to improve produc- 1 7. Performance reports compare actual costs and revenues with planned costs and revenues and thus provide signals to managers to identify weak areas and to take corrective actions. 8. Business ethics is concerned with making the right choices and usually involves sacrificing individual self-interest for the wellbeing of others. It is possible to teach ethical behavior in virtually any course. By introducing ethical dilemmas in management accounting, students can become aware of the behavior that is expected in the business world and, in particular, for management accountants. 9. Yes. There is some evidence that ethical behavior actually is good business. It improves society, helps align individual goals with firm goals, enhances a firm’s public image, and even seems to be related to better financial performance. The market and consumers appreciate ethical behavior and are willing to reward those who adopt it. 10. Yes. As management accountants become more informed about what behavior is acceptable and what is not, support should increase for ethical behavior. The code also recommends solutions to ethical dilemmas that might not have been obvious to the practicing management accountants. 2 11. The three forms of certification are the CMA, the CPA, and the CIA certificates. Although each certification can prove to be valuable for management accountants, the CMA designation is tailored to fit the needs of management accountants. The CPA designation has a public accounting orientation, and the CIA designation has an internal auditing orientation. Only the CMA designation specifically addresses the professional requirements of a management accountant. 12. The four parts are: (1) business analysis; (2) management accounting and reporting; (3) strategic management; and (4) business application. The parts reveal the interdisciplinary nature of management accounting. EXERCISES 1–1 a. CMS g. FS b. FS h. CMS c. CMS i. CMS d. FS j. FS e. CMS f. CMS 1–2 1. Customers can be internal or external. Users of the component produced by William’s department are his customers. This includes the assembly department and the rework department. In a sense, those who buy the calculators are his customers too—after all, the functionality of the calculator is affected by the quality and reliability of its components. 2. William’s department is producing a low-quality component. One out of every 100 units is a high defect rate and is causing a lot of rework. Being sensitive would require a dramatic reduction in the defect rate. A reduction in the defect rate would decrease cycle time, lower the rework rate, and decrease costs. This creates the potential to increase value for external customers and makes the life of internal customers much easier. 3. Cost management can provide information concerning quality—both financial and nonfinancial. Defect rates can be tracked over time. Rework costs attributable to defective components from William’s department can be measured and tracked over time. Cycle time reductions due to improved quality can be measured and reported. Product cost reductions attributable to improved quality can be reported. 3 1–3 Companies have set up customer service telephone lines as a necessary part of doing business. A mail-order business will find that many customers prefer to order merchandise over the phone rather than filling out an order form, finding a stamp, and mailing it. Software companies find it necessary to have help lines available to customers who may not be as technically sophisticated as a computer programmer. Many of these customer service telephone lines are toll-free. Costs include: Direct costs: The investment in office space and office furniture for the customer service representatives. The investment in telephones and queuing equipment. The monthly cost of the phone service and the 1–800–number. The salaries of the customer service representatives. Indirect costs: Cost of lost sales to competitors who do have this service if the company chooses not to provide it. Lost sales (no repeat orders) from frustrated customers who have difficulty dialing in (overloaded lines) and who must remain on hold for an inordinate amount of time. Lower marketing costs in the long run as satisfied current customers purchase additional items. 1–4 The manager is clearly considering unethical behaviors, especially the decisions associated with reducing maintenance and promotional salaries. Extending asset life for depreciation has less clear ethical implications. Reducing maintenance may not hurt much in the short run but will have long-run negative financial consequences. Furthermore, the decision for promotions has been made with a given set of financial expectations, and reducing the salary increases by 50% for deserving employees is obviously unfair to them. Although the manager is not a cost or management accountant, he is violating the ethical standard that requires “abstain from engaging in or supporting any activity that might discredit the profession.” (III-3). 4 1–4 Concluded The reduction in promotional salary increases is particularly egregious in that he is reducing the salaries of others so that he may benefit. In effect, he is stealing from his subordinates. The reduction in maintenance budget is also a form of stealing—robbing future service potential to produce a current personal benefit. An ethical dilemma does exist if the manager carries through with his plans. The dilemma exists because the manager wants to manipulate earnings to achieve personal financial gain. A company code of ethics and compliance monitoring is one recommendation. An internal audit could be used to detect and deter such questionable behavior. Furthermore, a company policy requiring managers to justify any expenditure reductions in writing to both the employees and higher management could discourage behavior like the manager’s. The best control, however, is hiring managers with the integrity to do the right thing even when faced with the opportunity to cheat or steal. 1–5 1. The controller wants a written record of spoiled material in order to more closely control it. From a behavioral perspective, the formal record keeping of spoilage will make it seem more important to individuals on the factory floor. If the company has a total quality management program in effect, keeping track of spoilage can make it easier to note trends and ensure that spoilage is being reduced over time. Additionally, the formal reporting of spoilage may make it easier to pinpoint the areas in which spoilage occurs and may enable management to improve the system to eliminate spoilage. Employees should be made aware that the purpose of tracking spoilage is to eliminate it, not to fix blame. Besides, everybody doesn’t know what the spoilage rate is. Some people think it is high; others think it is low. A written record of spoilage will prevent a certain amount of pointless arguing about this. For example, the plant manager will not be forced to rely on the production manager’s assessment of spoilage as “practically none” or “not important.” Instead, both managers can rely on the recorded spoilage to determine how much is occurring and how it can best be reduced. 5 1–5 2. Concluded Terry correctly sees that keeping track of spoilage is additional work. This will cost the plant in one way or another. Even if an additional worker need not be hired, the workers who do record spoilage, by definition, will not be doing something else. Terry should work together with the controller to see that the costs of recording spoilage do not exceed the benefits. He should also attempt to make the recording as easy as possible and concentrate on the “expensive” spoilage. Finally, Terry’s remark indicates that workers may hide spoilage to avoid responsibility. They may “steal” it and then dispose of it, or they may simply pass on a bad unit to the next process. Either approach is costly and not in harmony with the goal of improving quality. These problems can be avoided by training, education, and the installation of controls. 1–6 1. Planning. The management accountant gains an understanding of the impact on the organization of planned transactions (i.e., analyzing strengths and weaknesses) and economic events (both strategic and tactical) and sets obtainable goals for the organization. The development of budgets is an example of planning. Control and evaluation. The management accountant ensures the integrity of financial information, monitors performance against budgets and goals, and provides information internally for decision making. Comparing actual performance against budgeted performance and taking corrective action where necessary is an example of control and evaluation. Continuous improvement. The management accountant helps identify opportunities for improvement, measures the projected costs and benefits, and reports on the actual outcomes. Decision making. The management accountant helps in the analysis of various alternatives and helps to choose the optimum course of action. 2. a. Planning; expected price and cost information are needed. b. Continuous improvement; cost savings from improved order entry quality. c. Control and evaluation; a performance report triggered the investigation that led to corrective action. d. Planning; forecasting of financial effects is necessary. e. Decision making; accounting must analyze cost-volume-profit effects. f. Continuous improvement; before-and-after costs are needed. g. Decision making; cost information for a keep-or-drop decision is needed. h. Continuous improvement; cost information for setups and materials waste. 6 1–7 Problems Dear Sue, I am pleased that you are considering taking an accounting course to complement your hotel and restaurant major. You will find that a basic knowledge of accounting will stand you in good stead in dealing with the business aspects of hotel management. Financial accounting is primarily aimed at outside parties. It involves generating financial statements that describe the assets and liabilities of a business and the periodic income earned. You will find that banks, the IRS, and other local, state and federal regulatory and licensing agencies will appreciate a good solid financial accounting system. Cost management is concerned with determining the costs of things like products, services, and activities. It is also concerned with using financial and nonfinancial information for planning, controlling, continuous improvement, and decision making. For example, you will want to budget and control costs for a hotel. You may want to determine the costs and revenues of different services. For example, is it worthwhile to offer a Sunday brunch for hotel guests? As you might guess, courses in both financial accounting and cost management would be of value. If you cannot afford the time to take both accounting courses, a good solid background course in cost and management accounting would be best. Good luck with your goal of becoming a hotel manager! Sincerely, 7 1–8 At first glance, this seems simple. Couldn’t John simply mention that Patty had already accepted a position as controller in another company? Since the decision was a close one between the two, this information would likely tip the balance in favor of John. However, some ethical issues should be considered. First, the information that Patty gave was likely given in confidence, and John should not disclose this confidential information without her permission. Second, disclosing the confidential information may provide a personal benefit to John. Third, it may be that Patty will change her mind about the position she has accepted (assuming she can withdraw honorably from the acceptance) once she is officially aware of the promotion. This decision and its consequences should be Patty’s and not John’s. If I were John, I would leave the response to the promotion entirely in Patty’s hands. Once offered the position, she may simply indicate that she cannot accept it because she is committed to another job. This may then cleanly open up the position for John. 1–9 1. Allison should not implement the suggested accounting procedures because they conflict with generally accepted accounting principles and violate Sections I–2, I–3, and III–3 of the IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice. It raises serious ethical questions in the areas of competence and integrity; e.g., Allison is not able to “perform professional duties in accordance with relevant laws, regulations, and technical standards” or “provide information … that are accurate, clear, ...” 2. Allison should discuss the problem with the next highest management level (if the divisional manager’s mind cannot be changed). This could be, for example, the corporate controller or the CEO. She could also discuss the matter with an objective advisor to assess possible courses of action. In some firms, ethical hotlines exist that will allow the dilemma to be analyzed. If no resolution is obtained, then resignation may be called for. 8 1–10 The proposed changes violate the following ethical standards: Competence. Top management’s request for Larry Stewart to account for the company’s information in a manner that is not in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles violates the standard to “perform professional duties in accordance with relevant laws, regulations, and technical standards.” Also, top management’s restriction on information disclosure has violated the standard to “to provide … information … that are accurate …” (I-3) Confidentiality. Top management has violated the ethical standard of “refrain[ing] from using confidential information for unethical or illegal advantage” (personal job security). (II-3) Integrity. Top management has violated the standard to “advise all parties [other shareholders] of any potential conflict.” (III-1) Credibility. Top management’s restriction and distortion of Silverado’s financial information violates the standard to “communicate information fairly and objectively.” (IV-1) To resolve the ethical dilemma, Larry should first determine if the company has an established policy. If so, he should follow the prescribed policies in resolving the ethical conflict. If there is no policy, then the specific steps are as follows: a. To confront top management about the unethical behavior unless Larry feels that they are involved, in which case the problem should be presented to the next higher level, the chairman of the board of directors. If this fails, then the issue can be taken to the audit committee and the board of directors. b. To clarify relevant concepts by confidential discussion with an IMA Ethics Counselor or other impartial advisor to obtain a better understanding of possible courses of action. c. To consult his own attorney as to legal obligations and rights concerning the ethical conflict. 9 1–11 By discussing the possible sale of Farris’ common stock with members of the trouble-shooting team, Gus Swanson has violated the following standards of ethical conduct: Confidentiality (II). Gus has disclosed confidential information acquired in the course of his work that he has not been authorized to share with peers and others within the organization. In addition, he has not informed subordinates of the confidential nature of the information nor has he attempted to prevent the further distribution of this information. Integrity (III). By discussing this information, Gus has engaged in an activity that would discredit his profession and prejudice his ability to carry out his duties ethically. Credibility (IV). Gus has violated the requirement to communicate all information fairly and objectively. Competence (I). Gus has an obligation to perform his duties in accordance with relevant laws and regulations. By discussing the information he overheard, he may have violated laws regulating the use of inside information. 1–12 1. Assuming the controller did not inform the CEO and CFO of the situation, the ethical considerations of the controller’s apparent lack of action, as covered in the IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice, are as follows: Competence (I). Management accountants have a responsibility to perform their professional duties in accordance with the relevant laws, regulations, and technical standards and to prepare complete reports after appropriate analyses of relevant and reliable information. The controller’s apparent lack of action regarding the overstatement of inventory and lack of provision for potential purchase commitment losses do not comply with generally accepted accounting principles. Integrity (III). Management accountants have a responsibility to mitigate actual conflicts of interest, refrain from engaging in any conduct that would prejudice carrying out duties ethically, and refrain from engaging in any activity that would discredit their profession. Credibility (IV). Management accountants have a responsibility to communicate information fairly and objectively and to fully disclose information that could influence an intended user’s understanding of the reports. 10 1–12 Concluded 2. The recommended course of action that Marian Napier should take, as described in the IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice, is as follows: Consult company policies and procedures regarding ethical conflict. If the company does not have adequate procedures in place to resolve the conflict, then Marian should discuss the problem with her immediate superior, the controller. However, as the controller is apparently involved in the matter and she has already spoken to him, it would not be necessary to inform him that she is taking the situation to the CFO. If the issue is still not resolved, she should consult the next higher level of management, the CFO, particularly since he or she will be one of the signers of the representation letter. During this process, Marian could clarify relevant ethical issues by initiating a confidential discussion with an IMA Ethics Counselor or other impartial advisor to obtain a better understanding of possible courses of action. She can also consult her own attorney as to legal obligations and rights concerning the ethical conflict. If the issue remains unresolved, Marian should continue to take the problem to the next higher levels of authority, which may include the audit committee, executive committee, and/or the board of directors. Except where legally prescribed, communication of these issues to outsiders (the media, regulatory bodies, etc.) by Marian is not considered appropriate. 3. The actions that Heart Health Procedures can take to improve the ethical situation within the company include: Setting the tone at the top for control consciousness of the people in the organization. Establishing an audit committee within the board of directors and providing an avenue for communication free of reprisals within the company. Adopting performance-based, long-term financial incentive plans. 11 COLLABORATIVE LEARNING EXERCISE 1–13 1. and 2. Potential questions Queen Isabella might have asked during the 8-month voyage follow. (F) refers to a financial accounting type of question; (CM) refers to a cost management type of question. Months 1–3: How are you progressing? Have you sighted land yet? (CM) How has the weather been? Are the winds favorable? (CM) Are there any problems on the ships? (CM) What distance have you covered? Are your supplies adequate? (CM) How are provisions holding out? (F, CM) Month 4: What is the terrain like? (CM) Is the land inhabited? (CM) What are the inhabitants like? Warlike? Peaceful? (CM) Have you found gold and precious stones? Other valuables (e.g., spices)? How much? (F) Did you claim the land for Spain? (F, CM) What resources are available in the new land? Timber and stone to build government buildings? (F, CM) Is there a good harbor? Are there nearby lands? (CM) What is your assessment of the potential for long-term colonization? (F, CM) Are the three ships in good condition? The sailors? (CM) Months 5–8: What kind of progress have you made? (CM) Are you at the same stage you would have expected based on your voyage out? (CM) How has the weather been? Are the winds favorable? (CM) Have you lost any ships or cargo? (F) Are there any problems on the ships? (CM) How are provisions holding out? (CM) When do you expect to be back in Spain? (CM) 12 CYBER RESEARCH CASE 1–14 Answers will vary. 13