IBC Summary Communication In Business: Managers, Models, Modes

Manager’s day ≠ Planning ≠ commu Organising nication Leading & motivating Controlling constitutet by communication (inseparable) 80% of managers waking hours are spent in verbal communication (Whetten, Cameron) 2/3 of managers time spent on „verbal activity“ (Eccles, Nohria) MINTZBERG’S MANAGERIAL ROLES (viewed thorugh the communication lens) 10 different roles grouped into 3 categories: INTERPERSONAL Figurhead: performing ceremonial duties (public speaking, media) Leader: Taking responsibility for the work of others; motivationg employess Liaison: Making contacts outside their own unit (i.e. their organisation or department) INFORMATIONAL Monitor: Collecting information („nerve center“ TWINNED with DISSEMINATOR) Disseminator: Sharing information they gathered with others in the organisation Spokesman: Representing the organisation to the outside world (external stakeholders) - DECISIONAL Entrepreneur: Seeking opportunities for improvement and initiating change (innovation) Disturbance handler: Intervening in response to unexpected events / conflicts Resource allocator: Deciding „who will get what“ Negotiator: Negotiating on behalf of the organisation (stake out own position; bargain best result) inward-facing (i.e. resource allocator) outward-facing (i.e. liaison) • bridge boundaries between orgaisations / organisational units = BOUNDARY-SPANNING outward- and inward-facing (negotiator, figurhead) • addressing internal and external stakeholders Difference between external and internal communication -> distinction blurred! i.e. sometimes internal stakeholders receive messages only intended for external ones & vice versa Box 1.C Task: Identifying Mintzberg‘s roles: Which of Mintzberg‘s roles do they perform in the following scenarios? • Frankie, Head of Marketing of medium-sized dairy, meets with the Head of Purchasing of a large supermarket chain to try and get it to stock the dairy‘s latest organic yoghut brand • Robin, CEO of international development charity, takes part in live televised panel discussion about international volunteering; other panellists are country‘s foreign minister, CEO of major bank and a doctor recently returned from Medecins Sans Frontieres Robin = Figurhead • Charlie, labour-law specialist in the HR Department of a large hospital, meets with an employee representative and a nurse whose behaviour has been the subject of repeated complaints from both colleagues and patients Charlie = Disturbance handler Critical perspective of Mintzberg‘s managerial roles • roles overlap: (they are NOT separable -> form an integrated whole = gestalt) • in some ways outdated (over 40 years old) -> in the 70s leader = one aspect of managerial work today leader = synonym of manager (learmonth, morrell) -> therefore Mintzberg‘s model might be called „leaders roles“ and manager is one of them • the performance of those 10 roles is different nowadays due to Information and communication technology (ICT) • Socio-political context changed: more globalizied, diverse, less hierarchical, • Idea of what a manager is has changed! ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION: STRUCTURE AND STRATEGY communication (part of strategic mgmt) = pivatol for organisation poor communication = poor organisation -> can lead to falling share price; damage reputation LEADER = COMMUNICATOR -> poor communicators aren‘t long in leadeship positions good communication: improves job satisfaction / productivity, reduces turnover, costumer loyalty bad communication: drives costumers away, lowers staff moral, prevents internal information transfer dialectical (mutually constitutive) relationship between communication & organisation (shaping one another) Organisational stakeholders Trade Unions Creditors Suppliers Media Company Government Employees Customers Shareholders Each group is affected by organisation‘s activites differently. OVERLAPING groups possible! Each has there own requirements / interest in the Organisation. External / Internal stakeholders Stakeholder communication plan: who is told what, how and when Integrated corporate communication making sure that ALL messages transmitted within / outside the organisation ARE COHERENT content should never clash! otherwise the credibility / trustworthiness will suffer! Box 1.F Task: Identifying errors in integrated corporate communication (see p. 12) 3 dimensions of Integration CONTENT do all manifestations of communication convey the SAME message, or at least COMPATIBLE ones? FORM Is this message presented in a CONSISTENT form, stylistically as well as layout, typography, visuals and colours? TIME Are different messages timed so as to reinforce each other? Have various stake-holders been informed at the appropriate time? „to achieve full strategic impact, all Communications to all constituencies through all channels must be customized to a given objective, yet consistent both with one another and the corporate strategy“ Box 1.G Example: Aligning communication with strategy „ Corporations have multiple constituents, and their communications must be responsive to all of them. ‚The job of a senior manager is to determine which elements of the overall strategy you want to communicate to each constituency‘ ,says CEO Kevin Rollins. Whether a company is developing a coherent identity for itself through advertising, is discussing with employees the reasons for a merger and subsequent workforce reductions or is explaining to shareholders why it didn‘t meet fourth-quarter projections, employing a coherent communication strategy is critical. ‚We break messages into pieces and try to give the right piece to the right audience.‘ says Rollins Brand tone of voice „to make sure that values, personality, or essence of the brand is uppermost in every situtation in which people come into contact with the brand‘s language (=touchpoints).“ i.e.brochures, billboards, websites BUT ALSO text on bills! Controlling communication • fairly large-scale policy-issues such as the choice of English as corporate language in multinational company • decisions about which communication media are appropriate for each constituent = picking communication channels • crisis communication plans • complaints management systems (lutzky, forthcoming) • scripts employees have to follow • specifying pronouns used to address customers (e.g. Du / Sie) Why communication is often underrated: • Education: Communication often seen as „soft skills“ = fuzzy and easy • Management academia: often researched „on the side“ • Management degree programmes: Degrees in Communication rare • Business schools: Chairs in Business Communication are rare FOUR MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION POINT COUNTERPOINT • Communication is easy because we • Communication requires expertise learn how to speak and use it every day • Language is less important than action • Language IS action - we do things with words! • Words are less objective than statistics • Figures are also biased. Sometimes text describe complex situations better • Communication does have an impact on the success or failure of organisations • difficult to measure the effect of communication Communication = exchange of facts, ideas and feelings „One cannot not communicate.“ (watzlawick, Bavelas, Jackson) even the choice to not answer = communication! COMMUNICATION MODELS Modells = theoretical constructs that explain how systems work • Abstraction: generalise individual phenomena, balance between simplification and elaboration • Purpose: better understanding of systems and the interrelationships of their components making sense of the complexity of the natural and social world Why are there so many Communication Modells? • Research questions are NOT answered once and for oll -> develop • Various disciplines study communication = different terminology (e.g. Philosophy, Linguistics, Psychology) • diversity = valuable resource (unrealistic that one model explains everything!) SHANNON-WEAVER MODELL • one of the earliest model (1949) , highly influential • based on the two way radio • messages can be affected by distortion through noise (traffic, biases against oneanother, etc.) If a message is affected by distortion it is NO longer the original message! semantic distortion = transmission in technical sense is NOT affected BUT meaning is (Rothwell) infosource - produces message transmitter - encodes channel - signals are sent receiver - decodes destination - arrives Encoding / Decoding = converting a message into and out of a form that can be transmitted through a channel -> this System = CODE BACKCHANELLING messages NOT only flow from sender to receiver with neat dividing lines! at the same time one interlocutor is speaking the other will send information (e.g. nod, „wow“ „mhm“) Most of the time this is very supportive, confirming if those signals miss the speaker might be disoriented, wondering if the listener is still listening = Backchanelling -> information always flows both ways! (verbal, non-verbal, culture-specific) COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS - EARLY MODELS Karl Bühler Roman Jakobson (adding to Bühlers model) • representation function (refering to objects / facts) • poetic function (message itself predominant) • expressive function (expressing emotions) • metalinguistic (languages is used to discuss itself) • appellative function (doing things) • phatic (dominant when communication is end in itself) SCHULZ VON THUN‘S FOUR-SIDES MODEL (FOUR-EARS MODEL) „The report need to be finished by next Tuesday“ - heard by Thun‘s four-sided model: • Factual Information • Self-revelation • Relationship • Appeal (What I am providing Information about) „Deadline is next Tuesday.“ (What I make known about myself) „The CEO is worried that I won‘t finish on time.“ (What I think of you and how we relate to each other) „My CEO doesn‘t trust me.“ (What I want you to do) „Get the report finished on time!“ COMMUNICATION MODES = System that allows to express meaning through symbols • verbal/linguistic mode - Symbols = Words (Speaking, Writing) • non-verbal modes - visual mode (pictures/colours) - audio mode (sound and music) - gestural mode (body posture/body language) - spatial mode (how smth/smby is arranged, distance) - olfactory / haptic mode (smell and touch) COMMUNICATION MEDIA = tool used to communicate information and ideas; linked to modes some media are better suited for certain mode e.g. Photo = visual NO movement Paper = haptic and visual NO audio Radio = only Audio MULTIMODALITY = combining various modes for max. persuasive effect -> store must look, sound and smell good • avoiding undue emphasis on verbal part alone • ensure overall fit between various modes Typography = design and layout of a text, type and size of font, etc. Register = language varieties that occur in particular situations (spoken or written register) YULE‘S FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE • Displacement: ability to not only talk about „here & now“ • Arbitrariness: Linguistic signs have no connection with what they represent BUT linked by social convention! • Dualitiy: sounds are meaningless unless they are combined into words • Productivity: sounds / words are combined in new ways with the help of rules • Cultural transmission: languages is passed through social/cultural contact NOT genes (abilitiy to learn a language is genetically transmitted) Symbols: represent reality - word or expression; arbitrary relation Morphology: e.g. global -> globalise -> globalisation Syntax: how to put words together in order to build infinite number of phrases and sentences LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY (SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS) languages does affect the way we think and how we see the world learning a new language = new world perspective • strong version: thought & perception of reality are determined by language • weak version: language influences thoughts & perception SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM Berger & Luckmann argue that what we perceive as reality is significantly created by social interaction and interaction depends on language. e.g.: the reality of a forest is different for a hiker, tree-hugger, hunter, biologist, etc. Language NEVER offers a full/precise reflection of reality - but instead versions created by language Meaning is NOT given it has to be negotiated in order to reach mutual understanding; if not communication breaks down SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE Spoken Mode: symbols which consist of sounds Written Mode: written representations of those sounds DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPEECH AND WRITING speech = product of nature (came before writing) -> synchronous, no revision -> messy writing = product of culture -> asynchronous (time-lag between production and reception), complex EXCEPTION: ONLINE CHAT = SYNCHRONOUS HYBRID FORMS OF LINGUISTIC MODE Speeches = written to be spoken, characteristics of both forms E-Mail = written BUT many features of spoken language -> interjections, incomplete sentences SMS = TEXTSPEAK -> new forms: LOL, OMG, C U L8R People with a prescriptive standpoint emphasize how language ought to be used -> Might be opposed to the use of Textspeak TEXT distinction between information presented in language and information expressed with other signs Writing AND Speaking = production of text = what listeners / readers interpret TEXT = process of making meaning into context INTERTEXTUALITY = relationship between texts (Texts rarely exist in isolation!) DISCOURSE = concept that texts are linked to social context „Texts draw on discourse, embody or enact it.“ „Social context manifesting itself in texts / reflecting social context.“ 1. Discourse = language in use, viewed together with social context, uncountable 2. Discourse = communicative habits, countable MANAGING EXPECTATIONS IN COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES OF SPOKEN INTERACTION If spoken interchanges are meant to function as meaning-making process, ALL participants MUST manage their own and other`s expectation by respecting certain principles Grice`s Cooperative Principles explains how interlocutors work together to achieve effective communication • Maxim of Quantity: give as much detail as necessary NOT more • Maxim of Quality: be truthful, no false information • Maxim of Relation: be relevant, only share pertinent information • Maxim of Manner: be brief and orderly, avoid ambiguity (Zweideutigkeit) sometimes those maxims are ignored for various reasons, e.g. if someone wants to be very polite they may violate the maxim of quantity Conversational implicature = filling in gaps of conversation in order to interpret it Script = set of rules for a specific situation (e.g. going to a restaurant -> waiting to be seated, ordering food, etc.) Preferred response = expected reactions (e.g. congratulations followed by thanks, invitation should be accepted) replies that do not conform those expectations = dispreferred response Turn taking = changing-over between speakers • formal: chairperson controlls the turn taking • informal: must organise themselves, various verbal/non-verbal signals Topic Shift when one indicates topic change, standard option for the other is to accept it (otherwise they violate a convention and will be expected to resort it) the more powerful person determines what the interactions should be about: set agenda, introduce new topics, accept/reject topic suggestions, etc. GENRES = social phenomenon, create expectations • category of text or communicative event distinguished by its purpose (product presentations, negotiations, interviews, contracts, textbooks, instruction mannuals) • texts belonging to the same one share formal characterstics such as stylistic features, structure, moves (accomplished part of the genres` communicative purpose; e.g. gentle opening for job interview to put interviewee at ease) • communicative purpose society, profession,etc.) and formal traits are agreed upon and upheld by particular community (e.g. violating expectations about genres might lead to misunderstandings and confusion Prescriptive: how language ought to be used Descriptive: how language is used CULTURAL CONTEXT • feature of social group and is learned subconsciously by members • encompasses ideas, attitudes, forms of behaviour typical for that and accepted by that group • constantly changing as the result of outside influences and actions by members EDWARD T. HALL AND CULTURAL NOTIONS OF TIME how time is understood by and within certain cultures Monochronic • time is experienced and used in linear way • divided into natural segments • tangible • time = highly valueable • UK, US, German-speaking countries Polychronic • simultaneous occurrence of many things, great involvement with people • more emphasis on completing human transaction than on holding to schedules ( two polychronic latins holding a conversation would rather come late to a meeting than abruptrly terminanting the current conversation) • less tangible Erin Meyer placed cultures along spectrum flexible to linear with regard to scheduling (=attitude to punctuality) the more linear the more punctual (e.g. Japan, UK, Sweden,...) the more flexible the less punctual (e.g. Arabia, Brazil, Turkey,...) HOFSTEDE‘S 4 CULTURAL DIMENSIONS (1967 / 1973) • Power distance - to which extend less powerful expect and accept the unequal distribution of power • Individualism - everyone is expected to look after him/herself and family / opposite = collectivism • Masculinity - societies where gender roles are distinct, opposite = femininity - gender roles overlap • Uncertainty avoidance - extend to which members feel threatened by uncertain situations Today we would name those dimensions differently • long- / short-term orientation - to which extend view of life is adaptive • indulgence / restraint - to which extent society accepts ‚to have fun‘ High power distance -> subordinates will rarely if ever challenge their superiors High Individualism -> emphasize „I“ over „we“ High uncertainty avoidance -> relative resistent to new thoughts/ideas High long-term orientation -> emphasize on tradition High short-term orientation -> adaptive view of life GLOBE PROJECT - 9 ASPECTS OF CULTURE (Culture competencies) • Performance orientation: to which degree performance improvement is encouraged/rewarded • Assertiveness: assertiveness, aggressiveness, confrontational against oneanother • Future Orientation: engagement in future-oriented behaviors: planning, investing, delaying • Humane Orientation: encouraging individuals for being fair, generous, caring, kind • Institutional collectivism: collective distribution of resources / collective action • In-group collectivism: loyalty, pride, cohesiveness in their organization / families • Gender egalitarianism: minimizing gender inequality • Power distance: accepts / endorses authority, status privileges, power differences • Uncertainty avoidance: relies on social norms, rules, procedures to unpredictable future events Criticism to Hofstede‘s ideas Culture ≠ static BUT changing Some individuals might not be consistent with regard to cultural dimension = CULTURAL PARADOXES -> VALUE TRUMPING -> culture can be overridden by others Essentialism = concept broken down into a number of aspects wich together constitute its essence -> criticised because culture is TOO complex CULTURAL PRESUPPOSITIONS = basic assumptions about world e.g. nodding in the western world = signal for agreeing (derived by convention) BUT in other cultures nodding means something different Presuppositions about social groups Many African / Asian societies hold special respect for older people and treat them respectful Priests in Europe are often respected from their communication partners Unfortunately there are also some social groups granted less respect than others e.g. disabled negative presuppositions about people with different appearance from oneself = RACISM Dog whisteling using certain ‚code‘ words that will trigger range of associations in the audience BUT will be dismissed as harmless e.g. UK Politics often praise hones British taxpayers in order to imply that immigrants abuse the benefits from this systems without directly mentioning it Space and Situation PROXEMICS = cultural presuppositions relating to space / situation in which communication occurs e.g. in Latin America people in conversation stand much closer together than in the US; this can therefore be perceived as rude by North Americans (invasion of personal space) certain building in certain cultures (e.g. churches, law courts) require respectful behaviour ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT • develop more / less distinctive cultures which interact with national ones • they are organised: internal structure that regulates relationships between members ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND COMMUNICATION Organigram = organisation structure; represents power relationships Communication within those structure = FORMAL COMMUNICATION NO Organisation can ensure that communication only takes places through official channels lead to INFORMAL COMMUNICATION Grapevine = Network that connects unofficial channels; in large companies often language clusters • transfers spontaneous messages quickly • can provide feedback faster and more reliable than through formal channels • BUT information OFTEN based on gossip and rumours; worst case scenario = mobbing / exclusion Communicating in Teams • typical patterns of communication (Leavitt): • Key features of communication in successful teams THE ROLE OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE „Corporate culture is the set of attitudes, values and standards of accepted behaviour that distinguishes one organization from another. Corporate culture is the accumulated history of an organization, including the visions of ots founders.“ (Gitman, McDaniel) • Corporate vs. local language • Family Name vs. first Name for CEO • Face-to-face vs. written modes of communication • Open corporate culture with informal, oral communiaction facilitate information flow BUT members who are excluded from informal channels will NOT receive information -> resentment + severe damage SETTINGS = micro-level context of any communicative activity -> IMPORTANT Role in establishing the context SOCIAL SETTING = social activity in which communication is embedded e.g. official business meeting, casual conversation in a bar, court hearing, funeral -> influences formality • How formality affects communication Increased Code code consistencs structuring Emergence Invoking of of central positional focus identities Code Structuring: restricted rights to participate Code Consistences: Aspects of language do NOT match higher level of formality - jokes, expletives, teasing - are rare Central Focus: focus on a narrow topic, language used little vocabulary and structure (e.g. annual report) Positional identities: Participants adopt / forced into positional identities e.g. act and speak in accordance to their public role as judge - witness, doctor - patient SPACE: WHERE DOES COMMUNICATION OCCUR? Space = location where communication occurs; it too is sometimes called setting Space and formality formality express through: • Architecture / layout • Interior design • Company premises vs. neutral ground • Seating arrangements Design and Layout Cell offices • communicate LESS face-to-face • have LONGER conversations • spend LESS of their time communicating • time when no one is engaged in communication is LOWER (unexpected finding) Multi-space offices • communicate MORE face-to-face • SHORTER conversations • spend MORE of their time communicating • time when no one is engage in communication is HIGHER (unexpected finding) Space and confrontation degree of confrontation is affected by seating arrangements sitting alongside on the same side of the table -> more cooperative Facing each other across the table -> more confrontational PARTICIPANT: WHO COMMUNICATES? Assumptions about other communication participants • Interlocutors with high degree of familiarity will probably use first names, unexplained references to shared experience • less familiarity -> first names are unlikely, greater need for clarity in referring to people / events outside the group‘s common experience In BOTH Situations choices will be influenced by macro level culture or cultures involved Assumptions may relate to level of knowledge or attitudes SIEGE MENTALITY = when groups / organisations believe that they are under attack from all outsiders Assumptions are ALL presuppositions that have been already established BEFORE communications Communicating across specialist fields and language barriers specialised genres / technical vocabulary not meaningful to outsiders need for technical terms to be discussed in order to achieve mutual understanding In a Cross-Functional Team (members from different units) this process of negotiation will be extended -> team becomes a COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE CODE SWITCHING = switching between languages depending on topic or other factors TRANSLANGUAGING = using two or more languages even in the course of a single utterance Discourse communities • Members of the same profession are united by how the talk and write • Discourse conventions = members shared preferences for particular words and phrases, habits, text types, writing, etc. Communities of practice • Made up of members from different (discourse) communities • Key challenges: understand each other‘s jargon, agree on shared vocabulary FORM VERSUS FUNCTION = types of structure -> IMPORTANT for decoding! • declaratives - Statement „I‘m cooking.“ • interrogatives - Questions „ Are you cooking?“ • imperatives - Order „ Cook the meal!“ A language form may be used to fulfil various communicative functions and vice versa! One form, 3 functions „Are you cooking the meal?“ Functions: • Seeking information wheter or not the meal is cooked • Getting what you want your partner to cook the meal • Passing on information about your feelings you are hungry, frustrated, etc. One function, 3 forms Getting your partner to cook the meal Forms: • „Cook the meal!“ - imperative No risk of misunderstanding; threat to relationship • „Are you cooking the meal?“ - interrogative less threat; misunderstood as genuine question • „I‘m fed up with cooking.“ - declarative less threat; relies on complex decoding Speech acts: Illocution and locution = distinction between form and function consists of various components: 1.) ILLOCUTION = social act that speaker/writer performs with an utterance (e.g. request) 2.) LOCUTION = the way the utterance is expressed in words and phrases (e.g. Could you call X please) (-> distinction between those two is essentially the same as between form and function) INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS = Form and function do NOT always coincide • one speech act is performed through another • wording seems to indicate one kind of illocution, BUT actually carries out another „Can you close the window?“ „Could you pass the butter?“ „Can you stay longer today?“ - Asking information / Getting something done THE INFORMATIVE FUNCTION (Schulz von Thun) = factual information - What am I providing information about? • facts, ideas, concepts, imaginary beings, uncertain future, hypothesis • ANY utterance or written text, that extends audience knowledge about these spheres • sub-functions: describing people, actions, summarising, reporting, predictions, comparing, contrasting • Text types in business context: reports, product catalogues, safety manuals • RARELY objective! -> reflecting different ways of seeing and understanding the same phenomenon Storytelling = sub-function of informing Purpose: entertain, motivate, warn, instruct, give advice, impress, justify actions, calm fears, escape -> in this case it is no longer to inform BUT to affect people‘s behaviour follows a set structure known to members of particular culture and which characterises a particular type of story (=genre); e.g. „Once upon a time...“ for fairy tales Founding Myths = stories about how companies were set up Whenever you are ‚selling‘ something it is crucial to have a good story or narrative! Elements of a good marketing Story (according to Copyblogger) • a hero • goal that the hero wishes to achieve • an obstacle to be overcome in achieving it • a mentor to guide the hero in their quest (here the company telling the story) • a moral (e.g. lessons to be learnt from that story) THE EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION = Self-revelation - „What I make known about myself.“ concerned with transmitting (NOT informing) indications of the psychological state of the sender INTERJECTIONS = utterances like „wow“ „Nice“ „Echt?“ EXPLETIVES = „damn“ „bloody hell“ „Shit“ Non-verbal signs = body language, facial expression The expressive function is fulfilled through the choice of vocabulary (think, believe, feel) and personal pronouns („Don‘t you think Boris is a great guy?“ - negative, declarative interrogativ) Emotion usually expressed in private setting Public shows of emotion -> ritualised e.g. clapping at the end of a concert Expressing emotion publicly in other context = face-threatening act IMPORTANT role in public discours Opinion = view or judgement with short term focus Attitude = settled stance or feeling IMPORTANT to differentiate between opinions and facts! ADVERTORIALS = appear to be standard lifestyle articles but are actually adverts;(promotional material) THE APPELLATIVE (conative) FUNCTION = Appeal - „What I want you to do.“ influencing thoughts and behaviour of others with „getting what you want“ Two ways of achieving: 1. imposing your will on others (by using language NOT force) 2. convincing other that what you want is in line with their beliefs and desires IMPOSING YOUR WILL • performative utterance = statement that changes social reality „I name this ship Zuzanna“ - at official launch „I pronounce you man and wife“ - at traditional wedding ceremony „I sentence you to 600€“ - spoken by a judge ONLY works if speaker has the right to perform the action Felicity conditions for a performative utterance • Conventionality of procedure: procedure follows conventional form (e.g. person who performs the wedding must use the exact wording prescribed) • Appropriate participants and circumstances: circumstances specified in relevant laws or rules (e.g. judge can sentence a criminal in court not on the street) • Complete execution: Speaker completes required speech act without errors or interruptions If felicity conditions are met, the audience has no option but to accept its effect Instructions • enforce compliance with speaker‘s will in some way • Imperative form: „Do this!“ > „Deliver the goods by Monday!“ • Statement: „We must have the goods by next Monday!“ • Gestures • Hearer Benefit = Instructions in the recipents‘ interest • Tone of voice of importance! • Intensifiers: 1. Adding and element of description designed to emphasise the importance „Get the goods here by Monday; Our customer has been waiting a week for the goods already! We need to find out the reason right away“ 2. Using expletives „Just get the bloody goods here by Monday!“ Threat • replaces Instructions • Explicit suggestion that if the comply is not met by the addressee, there will be negative consequences for them. Threat should persuade addressee not to make those conditions come true. „Deliver the goods by Monday! Otherwise we, will cancel the order.“ Conditional utterance: „If you fail to deliver the goods by Monday, we will cancel the order.“ • risk of beeing counterproductive -> likely to antagonise (gegen sich aufbringen) -> „face-threatening“ Request • implies that audience does have a choice - even if speaker think otherwise • Interrogative: „Can you deliver the goods by Monday?“ • Declarative: „We will need the goods by Monday.“ • CONTEXT MATTERS! -> How well do you know the addressee, corporate culture, tone of voice, power relations Reducing the antagonistic effect of request Mitigating request Understaters: „Could you deliver at least some of the goods by Monday?“ Downtoners: „Any chance you could deliver the goods by next Monday?“ Negation: „Couldn‘t you deliver the goods by next Monday?“ Past tense forms: „I was wondering whether you could deliver the goods by next Monday“ Embedded conditions: „We‘d be grateful if you could deliver the goods by next Monday.“ Request Perspectives Hearer-oriented: focus on recipient „Can you deliver the goods ... ?“ Speaker-oriented: focus on person making the request „I would like to have the goods ... .“ Speaker and Hearer-oriented: inclusive focus „Let‘s see if we can‘t get the goods delivered ... .“ Impersonal: focus on action „It would be great to have the goods ... .“ CONVINCING OTHERS TO WANT THE SAME AS YOU persuasion is often reliant on non-linguistic support e.g. images, body language, tone of voice Negotiations • dialogic situation; all parties are aware that they will have to compromise • Negotiators goal = to make as few concessions as possible • conditional form often used „ If ....“ - Vague Language as negotiating tool „ Perhaps I could wait a bit longer for delivery after all.“ „ I might be able to do smth for you on the price, but I‘d need to speak to my boss first.“ INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION relationship - „What I think of you and how we relate to each other.“ relationship = RAPPORT = good mutual understanding ≠ intimacy Phatic communication = any specific content that may happen to be communicated is less important than the mere fact that communication is taking place • can be used for backchannelling • „How do you do?“ - said immediately after introduction - no question about persons health but merely acknowledgement that introduction has taken place Eloquent Silence: silence as means of communication as phatic function In interpersonal area silence can be used es distancing mechanism (prolonged silence ≠ acceptable) Small Talk • being ostensibly about some ‚concrete‘ topic: weather, health, food, etc. • influenced by culture POLITENESS interpersonal function divided into 2 part: „What I think of you“ AND „How I relate to you“ correspond to the concept of FACE = a persons public self-image Face, face-threatening acts and facework Positive Face: desire to be perceived positively by others Negative Face: desire for freedom of action and freedom of imposition (not being forced to do smth) Face-Threatening Act: Causing a person to ‚lose face‘ is likely to breakdown the communication and endanger one‘s relationship • „You are stupid!“ threatens their positive face • „Clean your room right now!“ threatens negative face Instructing someone to do smth threatens their negative face cause they either comply or provide justification for not complying otherwise they threaten their positive face Facework: avoid face-threatening acts or minimise their damage Terms of address - family and first name, Nicknames, Titles, Second person pronouns, Sir/Madam, Sie vs Du varies from culture to culture inappropriate use= face-threatening T/V Languages = Languages that distinguish between familiar and polite forms with „Du und Sie“ Politeness strategies • delay face-threatening act: using fillers, inserting introductory words / phrases • Express message indirectly: „I wonder whether you could repeat your main points.“ • Apologise or express regret: „Unfortunately, the product you ordere is not available.“ • Yes-but strategy: Beginning with preferred respones before disagreeing • Understatement: „Could you just go back one slide for a second?“ • Switch the blame away from the sender: Passive construction, impersonal construction, smby / they • 7.000 languages (including SIGN language) • ALL are systems that allow key functions discussed in chapter 4 How can I link sentences to build texts that achieve my aims? Which words best express the message I want to get across? How do I connect with my audience? • Speakers make goal-oriented choices about best way to achieve communicative objectives • Speakers decide on broad communicative goals and how exactly they intend to reach these - Communicative objectives: Being seen as responsible manager Being seen as highly qualified potential employee Make my products come across as attractive • Freedom of choice is constrained by: grammar, sentence structure, tenses, vocab, etc. LANGUAGE AS A RULE-GOVERNED SIGN SYSTEM Sign = complete message that have been condensed into one / few words; complete, inflexible -> expresses only one single meaning descriptive piece of evidence Sign in terms of language being a sign = symbol that conveys meaning e.g. image, gesture, word; spoken, written, sung, finger-tapped THE FORM AND MEANING OF SIGNS Semiotics = study of signs and how they make meaning -> F. de Saussure „Cours de linguistique generale“ Signs consist of 2 elements (both psychological) -> form a united whole in the mind 1. SIGNIFIER = psychological imprint of smth we experience through our senses 2. SIGNIFIED = concept associated in our mind with the signifier SIGNIFIER e.g. tree Baum/arbol SIGNIFIED the concept Ogden and Richards SYMBOL = Saussure‘s signifier THOUGHTS = signified REFERENT (added) = smth in the real world ≠ concept Referring to the same thing BUT associate it with different ideas (different symbols) = misunderstanding e.g. graffiti or mural; problem or challenge; subordinate or team member THE RULES AND WHO MAKES THEM signs are connected and work together in routine and predictable (SYSTEMATIC) manner connection = determined by rules ≠ natural laws RULES = socially constructed (by speech communities), may be codified in dictionaries / grammar books flexible, less reliable (might changes, broken for artistic purpose etc) Legal texts often begin with series of definition in order to reduce future dispute; BUT word can still be argued about and might become the subject of a court case MAKING LINGUISTIC CHOICES CHOOSING A STRUCTURE FOR YOUR TEXT structure = closely connected to genre / associated styles (Chapter 2) BUT consider: • order in which to present information • how it is to be divided into manageable sections • and how these sections are to be linked The whole and the parts paragraphs = sections we need to decide what part of the message each paragraph conveys and how they are connected this also applies to the sentences in the paragraphs ALSO essential for oral genres e.g. sales pitches, negotiations Boulerplate = standardised text for example at the end of an Apology Mail to the costumer COHERENCE • the way in which a text hans together • wholly or partly implicit • „ I saw Anna using the coffee machine earlier. Now it‘s broken.“ COHESION • refers to linguistic devices (e.g. linkers) • creates explicit connections between clauses, sentences, paragraphs • „I‘m sure it was Anna who broke the machine, because she was the last person to use it.“ CHOOSING WORDS LEXIS = Vocabulary Connotations and semantic aura Two words that mean the same thing (SYNONYMS) have different CONNOTATIONS POSITIVE CONNOTATION NEGATIVE CONNOTATION Thrifty Stingy Affordable Cheap = Tolerant Unprincipled Confident Bossy - - SEMANTIC AURA = associations evoked through specific word; either positive or negative Pronouns: Distance and solidarity • „us“ vs „them“. In-group (COLLECTIVE IDENTITY) vs out-group • Pronoun usage and corporate communication strategy: Case of IKEA „IKEA only uses ‚DU‘ on signs and announcements instead of ‚Sie‘ is intended to signal the ‚Swedishness‘ of the brand. BUT in France they to indeed use the ‚Sie-Form‘ ‚Vous‘ cause in this cultural aspect using informal pronouns might be a step to far.“ Metaphors: Making pictures with words • representing smth (person, action, object) in terms of another • By creating a picture with words we can give them more power • „Red Bull ‚gives you wings‘ metaphorically means it will lift you up to achieve even the riskiest endeavours • example of business metaphor is use of ‚family‘ e.g. „Wal-mart family“ -> loyalty, common interest,... SOURCE DOMAIN (area of meaning on which it draws) = „family“ TARGET DOMAIN (thing to which meaning is applied) = Walmart EXTENDED METAPHOR = single source domain is drawn on repeatedly to refer to elements of the same target domain CHOOSING GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES AGENCY = Do we want to draw attention to social actors, and if so, which ones? INTRANSITIVE = ‚verbs of happening‘ „Income tax will rise“ TRANSITIVE = ‚verbs of doing’ - „ The government will raise income tax.“ TRANSITIVITY = who does what to whom, and how PASSIVISATION = „500 employees were laid off last year.“ NOMINALISATION = „There were 500 lay-offs last year.“ End Focus • in english = focus on last item of clause - putting an item in this position gives it a great deal of emphasis „Our sales suffered because of the new project.“ - „The new project cause our sale to suffer.“ • cleft-sentence - great deal of rhetorical impact „Our strategy is flawed.“ - „It‘s our strategy that is flawed.“ Information flow and the ‚given-new‘ principle • Given-new principle = information that is ‚given‘ (previously mentioned or obvious) is placed in the beginning of the sentence, while information that is new comes closer to the end • FALSE! : „Our solicitor has finished drafting the contract.Tomorrow, we will sign the contract.“ • RIGHT :) : „Our solicitor has finished drafting the contract.It will be signed tomorrow.“ given-new principle LANGUAGE VARIETIES • distinctive way of speaking (writing) which is common to particular group of language users. • ALL varieties, even those with low prestige, have their OWN grammatical systems! • Speech community = people who have developed their own set of linguistic norms STANDARD VARIETIES • rules are codifies in dictionaries and other reference works • used by country‘s public authorities in communicating with each other and its citizens • taught in schools PLURICENTRIC = countries with more than one standard varieties e.g. Austria, Switzerland,... ACCENT = RECEIVED PRONUNNCIATION DIALECT = geographically based SOCIOLECT = based on characteristics such as age, ethnicity, occupation, educational background IDIOLECT = Each person‘s unique way of speaking and writing World Englishes • 75 territories where English is either the first language or second! -> GLOBAL ENGLISHES INNER CIRCLE • First wave of British imperialism • English as native language for most inhabitants • US, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand OUTER CIRCLE • Second wave of British imperialism • English native speakers are minority BUT english ist widely used for (semi-)official purpose • India, Nigeria, Hong Kong EXPANDING CIRCLE • English is NOT a native language and has NO official status! BUT is increasingly used • Virtually all the rest of the world, including Austria English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) Typical strategies: • speak slowly and clearly • use only restricted, generally understood vocabulary • avoid idioms and metaphors bound up with aspects of English-based cultures Code-switching = moving between different varieties Accommodation = making a deliberate effort to fit in with your interlocutors‘ language dialects OVERT PRESTIGE = prestige that is openly acknowledged COVERT PRESTIGE = ‚hidden‘ not usually acknowledged LANGUAGE VARIATION AND SOCIAL STATUS • standard varieties tend to be associated with higher-status groups • accommodation as a strategy • even low-prestige sociolects are NOT ‚grammar-free‘! e.g.: African-American English wit lower level of education: • Omission of the verb to be in compound tense forms - „He workin‘“ • Double negatives - „she never said nothin‘“ • Omission of the possessive `s - „baby mama“ • Use of been to indicate a long time ago - „I been did my homework“ REGISTERS = language varieties that occur in particular situations, which can be divided up into spoken and written • written registers employ standard syntax; repetition much less than in speech; „better organised“ TECHNICAL REGISTERS technical language used in discourse communities (knowledge of specific field) Features: • many technical terms -> make up field‘s TERMINOLOGY • fewer personal pronouns • fewer questions • greater variety of vocabulary • more linkers • more passive constructions • more nouns, with correspondingly fewer verbal structures (disruption of transport) • more adjective-noun and noun-noun combinations (severe disruption; government action) • will have SUB-REGISTERS associated with different situations IS THERE A ‚BUSINESS REGISTER‘? YES NO • common terminology • much more direct contact with general public • existence of specific business-genres • contains many different professions • terminology often less clearly defined than in other fields (annual reports, job interviews) • business interactions take place in diverse settings given all that, it makes little sense to talk of a single business register of language! LANGUAGE CHANGE = language variation, might be so distinct that they are recognised as new languages e.g. spread of (English) business expressions into other areas of language and other languages HOW LANGUAGE CHANGES Possible Changes: PHONETICS (=sounds), Spelling, Grammar (often slower than other changes), Lexis Lexical change • words disappear e.g. a doffer was a type of child labourer in early textile factories • new words appear OR existing words acquire new meanings = NEOLOGISM combining two words (stagflation = stagnation + inflation) placing adverb before noun ( „to“ outsource) suffixes may be added at the end (globalisation) • RETRONYMS = word or phrase created because an existing term that was once used alone need to be distinguished from a term referring to a new development such as „acoustic guitar“ in contras to „electric guitar“ OR „analog watch“ and „digital watch“ Semantic Changes • Changing denotation (= principal meaning) e.g. „villain“ was originally a farmworker • Changing connotation (=negative / positive associations) e.g. „Weib“ nowadays very negative connotation • Amelioration = loosing negative connotations and acquire positive meaning e.g. collaborate • Pejoration = loosing positive connotations and acquire negative meaning e.g. Weib • Narrowing e.g. „trade“ mainly denoted the activity of buying and selling in general; nowadays generally restricted to ONE particular type of commerce = buying / selling across borders • Broadening e.g. certain brand names „Hoover“ becoming generic term for vacuum cleaner and even becoming a verb „to hoover up“ or „to google“ / googleable WHY LANGUAGE CHANGES • knowledge growth • business often contribute to it by coining new names for products / processes • Social changes („manspreading“ , „identitarian“ „Brexit“ Social Taboos changing gendered language • language contact - colonisation, migration -> creation of creole languages, new sociolects • Borrowings = integration of words from one language to another ; fill Semantic Gaps(e.g. siesta, Schadenfreude, baguette, awkward,...) KEY CONCEPTS: PERSUASION AND RHETORIC HOW PERSUASION WORKS = providing arguments and reasons for the receiver to want the same thing as you and aligning their position with yours • takes receivers‘ attitudes into account • requires an understanding of what others want and need • relies on cooperation CAN be resisted (difficult) • powerful way to influence people RHETORIC THEN AND NOW • ARISTOTELE: „The Art of Rhetoric“ = the art of public persuation = the art of persuasive discoure -> implies that rhetoric CAN be learned and taught • mainly studied in formal settings (e.g. courtrooms, political speeches) BUT also applied in private interactions PERSUASION = broad, relatively vague concept RHETORIC = specific set of language skills Rhetoric in a changing world Ancient Greece -> emergence of „democratic politics“ in order to gain power persuasion was required Persuasion continues under various political regimes used in sermons (=Predig) and business impact increases through technology (Printing Press, Telegraph, Radio / TV, Social Media) 5 Major ways in which changing communications environment has affected persuasion (R.M.Perloff) • Number of persuasive Communications has grown exponentially Adverts, public service announcements, Internet banner ads, telephone marketers • Persuasive Messages travel faster than ever • Persuasions has become Institutionalized numerous companies are in persuasion business; critical weapon in the arsenal of powerful companies • Persuasive Communication has become more subtle and devious salesperson know all about flattery, empathy, nonverbal communication, appeals; Marketing -> ‚hard-sell‘ appeals & soft-sell • Persuasive Communication is more complex and impersonal persuaders and consumers frequently come from different cultural background ARISTOTLE AND THE ART OF RHETORIC 1.) ETHOS: THE POWER OF BEING WHO YOU ARE = the act of establishing credibility usually right at the beginning of a speech (act) -> captatio benevolentiae (=the winning of goodwill) 2.) PATHOS: THE POWER OF EMOTIONS = the act of addressing people‘s emotions • mainly listener/reader-oriented • emotions are often a strong driver of our opinions, beliefs and actions - positive emotions in advertising: Hope, Love for our dogs / children - negative emotions: Guilt, Fear Rhetorical devices used: • vivid imagery such as similes and methaphors (My team is linke one big, happy family!) • Personification =form of metaphors (e.g. company is hungry for expansion) • Addressing the audience personally (As I am sure all of you are aware...) • Rhetorical questions 3.) LOGOS: THE POWER OF REASON • appeals to the listener‘s reason • makes listener understand why it makes sense for them to change their mind Rhetorical devices used: • giving examples • discussing causes and effects, or advantages / disadvantages • using facts and figures (e.g. tables and graphs) ETHOS - PATHOS - LOGOS - in Advertisements COMBINING ETHOS,PATHOS AND LOGOS = effective trio • intensifiers increase the impact of the information provided (rapidly, outstandingly) -> appeal to EMOTION NOT LOGIC • personalisation (we, you) - ETHOS • cause-and-effect connection (that means...) - LOGOS Example for combining Ethos, Pathos and Logos -> Box 7.C p. 143 RHETORICAL DEVICES: AN OVERVIEW STRUCTURE can highlight ideas that support writers persuasive efforts / downplay less favourable ones Topic Sentence = highlights main idea covered in that paragraph REPETITION = word, phrases, sentence repeated within short space -> leads to emphasis PARALLELISM = structures of phrases and sentences are repeated (e.g. I‘ve spent, I‘ve worked, I‘ve ...) RULE OF THREE = level of complete text, a paragraph, sentence (veni,vidi,vici ; Buy it, sell it, love it) RHYME = words that finish with syllable that sounds the same in each word (7eleven, Once you pop you can‘t stop) ALLITERATION = repeats the initial sound of the word (Coca-Cola, PayPak, Range Rover) ONOMATOPOEIA = imitates a sound ti evoke feelings associated with product (They‘re grrrrreat - imitates tiger) PUNS = make use if fact that two words / phrases sound the some or similar bur mean different thing - An optometrist called „Spex in the City“ - A restaurant sign saying „Not eating here would be a missed steak“ • DO NOT cross language boundaries well -> best to not translate it • CONTEXT-DEPENDENT - e.g. Sellfridges = pun to British warehouse Selfridges SIMILES = using words: „like“ „as“ („They‘re running like headless chickens“) METAPHORS = NOT comparing BUT EQUATING („Competition is war“ „Bombard potential customers with adverts.“) • „Walmart ‚family’“ from Source domain (Family) to Target domain (Walmart) create images and associations in reader‘s / listener‘s mind DEAD METAPHOR = Metaphor that became normal part of language HYPERBOLE = overstatement (utterly amazing, Östereichs bestes bier, revolutionising dishwashing experience) LITOTES = understatement ( cheap models durability is not exactly its strong point; staffing levels are a little stressed) EUPHEMISM = avoiding words/phrases that have negative connotations by using related words that have more positive associations (downsizing instead of firing worker) RHETORICAL QUESTIONS = question which speakers/writers intend to answer themselves NOT audience „Why am I not surprised by that?“ • If used well very effective - to many = silly, artificial - to few = bland and boring THE DARK SIDE OF RHETORIC = Rhetoric used to deceive NOT persuade = FALLACY - invalid reasoning (25 identified by Barnet & Bedau) • Rhetoric used to hide truths, distort facts, persuade people AGAINST their interest 1. Group - FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION - invalid because the underlying logic is faulty • distorting facts = half truths, leaving out essential information • undistributed middle = false chain of argument, True statement + true statement + WRONG Conclusion • false dichotomy (Either/Fallacy) = presenting problem with two solution EVEN THOUGH there more options • hasty generalisation = Evidence that is true for some, presented as if it is true for ALL = Stereotypes • begging the questions (petitio principii) = seems to present reason BUT actually paraphrases original statement • Post hoc ergo propter hoc („After this, therefore because of this“) = Mixing up correlation and causation • Event A happened shortly after event B -> event A caused B (wrong conclusion) 2. Group - FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE STRAWMAN = contradicts more extreme position that original argument AD HOMINEM = ignores topic, instead attacks interlocutor on personal level RED HERRING = a distraction shifts attention to a less controversial topic POWER AND ITS SOURCES = complex social phenomenon WHAT IS POWER depends on perspective: „Power it he probability that one actor within a relationship will be in position to carry out his will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests“ - Weber „Power is defined here as the potential ability to influence behaviour, change course of events, overcome resistance, get people to do things they would not.“ - Pfeffer „Power is capacity to influence other actors with (...) political interests in mind“ - Fleming „Power: Production and reproduction of, resistance to, or transformation of relatively fixed (sedimented) structures of communication and meaning that support of interests of some organisations member or groups over others“ - Mumby influence = dynamic active process power = force behind the ability to influence authority = used when legitimation of power derives from acceptance by those over it is exercised Power: Good or bad? difficult to retain neutral when talking about power -> some might argue that one should actively seek to uncover, critique and fight against unequal power relations „Power form knowledge, produces discourse. It need to be considered as a productive network which runs through the whole social body, much more than as a negative instance whose function is repression“ - Foucault Power is omnipresent! Everyone has some power! e.g. Boss has power over staff BUT it also depends on the staff to achieve the expected results - which means they also have power over their boss coercive power = power based on force and fear accountability = can be held responsible by someone, can be required to justify use of power / actions Power and Resistance Issue of reciprocity = even asymmetrical power relations are two-way; leaders remain dependent on the led, while followers retain autonomy and discretion leadership -„ a reciprocal relationship between those who choose to lead and those who decide to follow“ resistance often negative connotations BUT employees who did not comply with superiors orders succeeded in making suggestions which were useful to the organisation! WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM? five sources of power: 1.) LEGITIMATE POWER = based on belief that someone has the right to exercise power over themselves 2.) REWARDED POWER =ability to give those that are subjected power (e.g. salary increase, company car) 3.) COERCIVE POWER = negative incentives punishment / withholding benefits, compulsion, force 4.) EXPERT POWER = superior knowledge and experience PERSONAL POWER 5.) REFERENT POWER = based on character traits; likeability, charisma additions: • CONNECTION POWER (NETWORK POWER) = ‚borrowing‘ power from people they know • RESOURCE POWER = having access to valuable assets e.g. information Sources of power NOT neatly distinguishable! -> overlap, interact and have cumulative effects Context and capital various types of power depend on CONTEXT! POSITION POWER = roles that hold power in a specific context e.g. judge IN court; CEO IN company out of context power position disappears! Some powerful social roles come with more general CAPITAL = prestige that buys material or symbolic goods outside your immediate influence Bourdieu‘s theory of capital: • ECONOMIC CAPITAL = consists of money / material assets • CULTURAL CAPITAL = assets that derive value from cultural conventions (e.g. expertise, skills, languages) SHARED cultural capital -> shared sense of identity; leads to inclusion/exclusion • SOCIAL CAPITAL = social networks we belong to / people we know; either created or inherited (born into) ‚Cycle of Capital‘ = way in which owning each type of capital can enhance the other forms, upward spiral e.g. economic capital can be used to gain social capital, etc. INTERSECTIONALITY = cumulative disadvantage; e.g. suffered by Caribbean woman in the UK with little formal education especially if she also happens to be lesbian or have a disability POWER AND COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATION HIERARCHIES AND COMMUNICATION PATTERN in organisations power differences expressed through organigram Reporting Lines = lines linking units / individuals in organisations; indicate power relations reporting written and spoken genres such as sales reports, briefings, status updates determine who has to talk to whom OR more likely „who may talk to whom“ Formal and informal communication formal communication = communication that follows reporting lines that define hierarchy technically information may flow upwards (reporting) AND downwards (orders) TOP-DOWN communication = Information flows downwards e.g. Feedback on job performance BOTTOM-DOWN communication often discouraged by hierarchical structures DUAL REPORTING = individual has two managers who may place conflicting demands on them HIERARCHY = each individual is directly responsible to ONE manager UPWARD DISTORTION = meaning of messages is changed as it is passed upwards -> derives from subordinates hesitancy to communicate negative information HORIZONTAL communication = between members of different units at same levels of hierarchy DIAGONAL communication = between members of different units at different levels of hierarchy impeded by hierarchies because such interactions must take place through common superior • LINE ORGANISATION = single (multi-level) hierarchy MATRIX STRUCTURE = two distinct hierarchies co-exist -> DUAL-REPORTING (same problems as hierarchies) Hierarchical and formal communication DOES NOT allow free uninterrupted flow of information! Breaking down hierarchies delayering / flattening = removing whole levels of management flat organisation = NO hierarchy (≠ titles, ≠ managers, ≠ fixed units) excessive informality can ALSO restrict information flow by concentrating information, expertise in individuals heads (What happens when they leave?) Complete flattening can also create unofficial power structures IDEAL would be the profits of informal communication without loss of control Example VALVE Bos 8.E p.168 POWER AND LANGUAGE USE IN ORGANISATIONS organisation influence members language in various ways: • Corporate language (often English) = language staff is supposed to use internally/externally • Scripts in call-centre • brand tone of voice • power and language use are linked in a DIALECTIC = influence each other -> power leads to people using language in particular way AND language contributes to creating those structures • language can empower / disempower people • shadow hierarchy = position of subsidiaries determined by how close their local language is to the corporate language (Box 8.F p.170 - Language and shadow hierarchies) • Communication within organisation is NOT restricted to linguistic mode!!! -> architecture, parking space, etc. POWER AND COMMUNICATION IN INTERACTIONS BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS power has impact on language use on micro level (= when individuals communicate) POWER AND RULES OF INTERACTION The more powerful CAN • Initiate interaction • Choose language • Determine level of formality • Introduce new topics • Ask more questions • Choose to use politeness markers • Express orders, advice criticism in direct form • Terminate interaction The less powerful MUST • Respond to initiation • Comply choice of language • Accept more powerful persons choice in this regard • Accept choice of topic • Answer more questions • Use politeness marker throughout • Express such face-threatening acts indirectly • Accept termination Conventions which apply when there is power imbalance (depend on cultural context!) IF the less powerful violates the rules, they must make up for their mistakes in order to avoid penalty! Non-verbal communication • location where interaction takes place reflects who is in control • in your own territory (e.g. office) you are more powerful • more powerful decides who sits where, and when it is acceptable to sit down • In face-to-face interactions more powerful have a more relaxed posture AN EXAMPLE: THE JOB INTERVIEW • Interviewer opens / closes the interview with TRANSITION MARKERS („Thank you for coming.., Please take a seat) • Interviewer manages transitions between topics (What abouts...?) • If job applicant wants to change the subject need to reduce the effect of rule violation (Would it be at all possible to... . I wonder if I could briefly raise another issue...) • Interviewer will ask more questions than Interviewee (Applicants who want to interrupt and ask a question generally feel the need to preface it with politeness mechanism „ I was wondering whether I could possibly come in here....) therefore will Interviewers explicitly encourage them to ask question if they want them to • loosely crossed arms / chin resting on one hand would look odd if Interviewee would adopt them BUT seem natural for Interviewer WHAT IS IDENTITY difficult to define has to do with how we see ourselves and how we want to be seen by others in everyday language = something highly personal „Who you are“ ; not changing Identity is NOT only personal characteristics (name, where they‘re born, age, creative,...) BUT ALSO determined by roles, sense of belonging to social groups = affiliations NOT only people have identities BUT ALSO social groups / organisations NOT having one single identity BUT we all have multiple identities (father and son); may conflict! NOT a simply question of „who you are“ BUT a question of „who you are NOT“ -> othering = differentiating ourselves from other people / groups (=the other) CONSTANTLY changing Identity work Identity = something we carry out; something we can work on • thoroughly social: shaped by others around us; NOT self-contained exclusive • always contingent and ongoing: change and adapt to shifting social context • draws on various societal discourses that enable us to develop a selfidentity that is meaningful and coherent: e.g. societal discourse of enterprise can provide sense of professional self • involves struggle: compete over particular conception of workplace identity that will prevail • is a communication phenomenon: performing identities through daily communication / companies attempt to shape workers identities by developing strategic communication processes Some changes of identity work are permanent (daughter moving out in order to perform new identity as adult) some are temporary adjusted to specific situations (students waiting for lecturer will act as colleagues/friends; as soon as lecture starts they will enact their student identities; no more jokes / high 5s) COMMUNICATING IDENTITY COMMUNICATING COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES some are non verbal: dress code, haircut, flags, etc. STILL language plays a pivotal role Language Choices • corporate language • language (variety) / dialect in advertising • signs in public building (e.g. airports, museum) Alignment = choosing to implicitly / explicitly associate yourself with certain ideas NEUTRALISATION = becoming accustomed to new identity (e.g. Universities becoming business-like identities) until it becomes standard and what we expect of it (here universities) has changed as well INWARD DIRECTED IDENTITY WORK Narratives = communicating identity by telling stories • founding myth = powerful tools for building corporate identities • career story = focus on personal circumstances / achievemnets • managing change = founding myths no longer needed -> new narratives for new identity for new goals -> Process of transforming organisational identities: 1. DEIDENTIFICATION - breaking down affiliations with existing identity using negative narratives 2. REIDENTIFICATION - existing stories replaced by new positive narratives (e.g. how employees can find a place in the new identity) • branding = outside directed identity work; integration of producer and product (e.g. in founding myth) applies to BOTH (producer AND product) COMMUNICATING PERSONAL IDENTITY Alignment • „We“ in order to show affiliation when referring to a group / organisation • adopting language features associated with that group (e.g. Terminology) • cultural appropriation = language variety / culture used by others for e.g. financial gain (Eminem) • social enterprises = hybrid organisation with hybrid identity -> bridging the gap commercial and non-profit enterprises Personal branding • framing your skills as USP • „packing yourself appropriately“ • differentiating yourself from competition (other job-seekers) ASSIGNING IDENTITIES LABELLING = placing someone in a social category by means of a ‚label‘ (e.g. the tall guy, the Chinese woman) From labels to stereotypes labelling itself is NOT a problem BUT can become one IF: • it does not correspond with that person’s own feelings • when they highlight characteristics that ‚other‘ (verb form of ‚the other‘) that person -> make that person seem different from the rest of the group (that female director, that gay accountant,...) • when labels source from prejudice/discrimination such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation -> in this case labels can easily turn into stereotypes IDENTITY MANAGEMENT, IDENTITY CONTROL organisations project identities externally AND internally; persuade members to adopt that identity „Buy into or invest in the identity“ How companies manage identities • uniforms; can provide symbolic boundary between work time/ non-work time • using „we“ instead of „you“ -> encourage „buy-in“ • new job titles to construct positive professional identity (e.g. sales advisor, barista, sandwich artist,) Identity control = imposing identity on others • dress codes that are impractical / painful • hard to say when identity management becomes identity control! Corporate language can be seen as control as it is such a fundamental part of Identity DISIDENTIFICATION = resistance to identity assignments • rejecting dress code • refusing to use „we“ but instead use „they“ „the company“ „the firm“ • „management“ instead of „managers“ • distance themselves from top management by referring to them in cynical and derogatory terms • development of alternative labels (e.g. a person of colour) BUT might be disliked by groups concerned discourses of disidentification • do not appear in formal communication • individuals may be unwilling to admit using disidentification