Financial Management

Chapter 1 -- An Overview of Financial Management         What is finance: cash flows between capital markets and firm’s operations The goal of a firm Forms of business organization Intrinsic value and market price of a stock Important business trends Business ethics Agency problem Career opportunities in finance  What is finance: cash flows between capital markets and firm’s operations (2) Firm’s Operation (Real Assets) (1) Financial Managers (3) (4a) (4b) Capital Markets (Financial Assets) (1) Cash raised by selling financial assets in financial markets (2) Cash invested in firm’s operations and used to purchase real assets (3) Cash generated from firm’s operations (4a) Cash reinvested in firms’ operations (4b) Cash returned to investors Financing decisions vs. investment decisions: raising money vs. allocating money Activity (1) is a financing decision Activity (2) is an investment decision Activities (4a) and (4b) are financing decisions The role of a financial manager Forecasting and planning of firms’ financial needs Making financing and investment decisions Coordinating with other departments/divisions Dealing with financial markets Managing risks 1 Finance within an organization: importance of finance Finance includes three areas (1) Financial management: corporate finance, which deals with decisions related to how much and what types of assets a firm needs to acquire, how a firm should raise capital to purchase assets, and how a firm should do to maximize its shareholders wealth - the focus of this class (2) Capital markets: study of financial markets and institutions, which deals with interest rates, stocks, bonds, government securities, and other marketable securities. It also covers Federal Reserve System and its policies. (3) Investments: study of security analysis, portfolio theory, market analysis, and behavioral finance  The goal of a firm To maximize shareholder’s wealth (or firm’s long-run value) Why not profit or EPS maximization? Profit maximization usually ignores timing and risk of cash flows EPS sometimes can be manipulated or misleading 2  Forms of business organization Proprietorship: an unincorporated business owned by one individual Advantages: Easy and inexpensive to form Subject to less government regulations Lower income taxes Disadvantages: Unlimited personal liability Limited lifetime of business Difficult to raise capital Partnership: an unincorporated business owned by two or more people Advantages vs. disadvantages: similar to those of proprietorship, in general Corporation: legal entity created by a state Advantages: Limited liability Easy to transfer the ownership Unlimited lifetime of business Easy to raise capital Disadvantages: Double taxation (at both corporate and individual levels) Cost of reporting S Corporation: allows small business to be taxed as proprietorship or partnership Restrictions: no more than 100 shareholders; for small and privately owned firms Limited Liability Company (LLC) and Limited Liability Partnership (LLP): Hybrid between a partnership and a corporation - limited liability but taxed as partnership LLPs are used in professional fields of accounting, law, and architecture while LLCs are used by other businesses  Intrinsic value and market price of a stock Intrinsic value is an estimate of a stock’s “fair” value (how much a stock should be worth) Market price is the actual price of a stock, which is determined by the demand and supply of the stock in the market 3 Determinants of intrinsic value and stock price Intrinsic value is supposed to be estimated using the “true” or accurate risk and return data. However, since sometimes the “true” or accurate data is not directly observable, the intrinsic value cannot be measured precisely. Market value is based on perceived risk and return data. Since the perceived risk and return may not be equal to the “true” risk and return, the market value can be mispriced as well. Stock in equilibrium: when a stock’s market price is equal to its intrinsic value the stock is in equilibrium Stock market in equilibrium: when all the stocks in the market are in equilibrium (i.e. for each stock in the market, the market price is equal to its intrinsic value) then the market is in equilibrium 4 Actual prices vs. intrinsic values When the intrinsic value of a stock is higher than the market price of the stock, we say that the stock in the market is under-valued (under-priced) For example, if the intrinsic value for a stock is $26 and the market price is $25, then the stock is under-valued. When the intrinsic value of a stock is lower than the market price of the stock, we say that the stock in the market is over-valued (over-priced) For example, if the intrinsic value for a stock is $30 and the market price is $32, then the stock is over-valued. When the intrinsic value of a stock is equal to the market price of the stock, we say that the stock in the market is fairly priced (the stock is in equilibrium)  Important business trends Globalization Improving information technology Corporate governance 5  Business ethics Standards of conduct or moral behavior toward its employees, customers, community, and stockholders - all its stakeholders Measurements: tendency of its employees, adhere to laws and regulations, moral standards to product safety and quality, fair employment practice, fair marketing and selling practice, proper use of confidential information, community involvement, and no illegal payments or practice to obtain business  Agency problem A potential conflict of interest between two groups of people Stockholders vs. managers Instead of shareholders’ wealth maximization, managers may be interested in their own wealth maximization Incentives: Performance shares, executive stock options (positive) Threat of firing, hostile takeover (negative) Stockholders vs. bondholders Stockholders prefer high-risk projects for higher returns Bondholders receive fixed payment and therefore prefer lower risk projects  Career opportunities in finance Banking Investments Insurance Corporations Government  Exercise ST-1 Questions: 1-8 6 Chapter 2 -- Financial Markets and Institutions      Capital allocation process Financial markets Financial institutions The stock market and stock returns Stock market efficiency  Capital allocation process The process of capital flows from those with surplus capital to those who need it Three types of transfer (1) Direct transfer: a business sells its security directly to investors (2) Indirect transfer through an investment banker: a business sells its security to an investment banker, which in turn sells the same security to individual investors (3) Indirect transfer through a financial intermediary: a financial intermediary obtains funds from investors by offering its own securities and uses funds to buy other business securities Capital formation process 7  Financial markets Physical asset market vs. financial asset markets Physical asset markets are markets for real (or tangible) assets Financial asset markets are markets for financial assets - focus of this class Money markets vs. capital markets Money markets are markets for short-term and highly liquid debt securities (less than one year) Capital markets are markets for intermediate and long-term debts and stocks (one year or longer) Primary markets vs. secondary markets Primary markets are markets for issuing new securities Secondary markets are markets for trading existing securities Spot markets vs. futures markets Spot markets are markets for immediate delivery Futures markets are markets for future delivery even though the deal is made today Private markets vs. public markets In private markets: transactions are negotiated directly between two parties Public markets: standardized contracts are traded on organized exchanges Derivative markets: for derivative securities A derivative security is a security whose value is derived from the value of an underlying asset. For example, futures contracts and option contracts Why do we need financial markets? Bring borrowers and lenders together to exchange needs  Financial institutions Investment banks (investment banking houses): specialized in underwriting and distributing new securities, such as Merrill Lynch (acquired by BOA) The role of investment bankers: underwriters Design securities with features that are attractive to investors Buy these securities from the issuing firm Resell these securities to individual investors Public offering vs. private placement Public offering: a security offering to all investors Private placement: a security offering to a small number of potential investors 8 Commercial banks: provide basic banking and checking services, such as BOA Financial service corporations: large conglomerates that combine different financial institutions into a single corporation, such as Citigroup S&Ls, credit unions Life insurance companies Pension funds Mutual funds: sell themselves to investors and use funds to invest in securities Exchange traded funds (ETFs): mutual funds but traded like stocks Hedge funds: similar to mutual funds with few restrictions  The stock market and stock returns Organized markets vs. over-the-counter (OTC) markets Organized markets (exchanges) have physical locations, such as NYSE OTC markets are connected by computer network with many dealers and brokers, such as NASDAQ 9 Auction markets vs. dealer markets Organized markets are auction markets OTC markets are dealer markets IPO markets: markets for initial public offerings Stock market transactions (three types) (1) Trading outstanding (existing) shares takes place in a secondary market (2) Selling additional shares by a publicly owned firm takes place in a primary market (3) Selling shares to the public for the first time by a privately owned firm takes place in a primary market (IPO market) Stock market reporting Stock Symbol (GSK) Prev close: closing price yesterday was $38.86 Change: change from the last trading price and the yesterday’ closing price is $0.25 = $39.11 - $38.86 Volume: trading volume up to 2:09 PM ET is 1,226,448 shares Avg Vol (3m): average daily trading volume over the past 3 months is 2,053,160 shares 52 wk Range: range of the highest and lowest prices for GSK in the past 52 weeks ($28.67 - $43.47) Day’s Range: range of the highest and lowest prices for GSK for the day ($39.08 $39.34) Div & Yield: annual dividend and dividend yield ($2.29 is the annual dividend, or $0.5725 per share last quarter) and dividend yield is 5.9% (2.29/38.86 = 5.90%) P/E (ttm): price to earnings (in the past 12 months) ratio is 47.42 (38.86/0.82) 10 Stock market returns Expected return: return expected to be realized, which is always positive Realized return: actual return received, which can be either positive or negative Measuring the stock market: DJIA, S&P 500 index, NASDAQ composite index Realized S&P 500 total returns, 1968 - 2010 S&P 500 Index, Total Returns: Dividend Yield + Capital Gain or Loss, 1968-2010 Returns (%) 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 -10.00 -20.00 -30.00 -40.00 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 Years 2-12 © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Realized stock market returns and risks, 1926 - 2007 Types of Stocks Small-stocks Large-stocks Long-term corporate bonds Long-term government bonds U.S. Treasury bills Average Return 17.1% 12.3% 6.2% 5.8% 3.8% Standard Deviation (Risk) 32.6% 20.0% 8.4% 9.2% 3.1% Positive risk-return relationship: the higher the risk, the higher the average return 11  Stock market efficiency Efficient market: prices of securities in the market should fully and quickly reflect all available information, which means that market prices should be close to intrinsic values (market in equilibrium) Levels of market efficiency Weak-form efficiency - stock prices already reflect all information contained in the history of past price movements (only past prices, volumes, and returns) Semistrong-form efficiency - stock prices already reflect all publicly available information in the market (only past publicly available information) Strong-form efficiency - stock prices already reflect all available information in the market, including inside information (all public and private information) Where is the market today? Less efficient Small firms with less coverage and contact  More efficient Large firms with more coverage and contact Exercise ST-1 Questions: 2, 3, 4, and 7 Example: investors expect a company to announce a 10% increase in earnings; instead, the company announces a 3% increase. If the market is semi-strong form efficient, which of the following would you expect to happen? (b) a. The stock’s price will increase slightly because the company had a slight increase in earnings. b. The stock’s price will fall because the increase in earnings was less than expected. c. The stock’s price will stay the same because earnings announcements have no effect if the market is semi-strong form efficient. 12 Chapter 3 -- Financial Statements, Cash Flow, and Taxes      Financial statements and reports Basic financial statements Free cash flow MVA and EVA Income taxes  Financial statements and reports Annual report A report issued annually to shareholders that contains: (1) Verbal statements: explain what happened and why; offer future prospects (2) Financial statements: Balance sheet Income statement Cash flow statement Shareholder’s equity statement Importance of financial statements and reports To investors: provide valuable information regarding the firm To managers: for internal control and financial planning  Basic financial statements (1) Balance sheet: a statement of a firms’ financial position at a point in time Cash & marketable securities Accounts payable (A/P) Accounts receivable (A/R) Accrued wages and taxes (Accruals) Inventory Notes payable -----------------------------------------------------------------------Current assets Current liabilities + + Total liabilities Net fixed assets Long-term debt + + Other assets Common equity (c/s and R/E) ------------------------------------------------------------------------Total assets = Total liabilities and equity Note: Current liabilities + long-term debt = total liabilities Common equity (Shareholder’s equity) = total assets - total liabilities Common equity = common stock (c/s) + retained earnings (R/E) = paid-in capital + retained earnings Retained earnings are cumulative, assuming no preferred stocks 13 Working capital: refers to current assets Net working capital = current assets - current liabilities Net operating working capital = current assets - (current liabilities - notes payable) Market value vs. book value Market value = the actual market price Book value = (common equity) / (# of shares outstanding) Table 3.1: Allied Food Product Balance Sheets (2) Income statement: a report summarizing a firm’s revenues, expenses, and profits during a reporting period Sales - Operating cost except depreciation and amortization ------------------------------------------------------------------EBITDA - Depreciation and amortization ---------------------------------------------------Earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) - Interest expenses ---------------------------------Earnings before Tax (EBT) - Income tax ---------------------------------Net income (NI) NI can be used for cash dividend and/or retained earnings Commonly used terms: Earnings per share (EPS) = NI / number of shares outstanding Dividend per share (DPS) = cash dividend / number of shares outstanding Dividend payout ratio = cash dividend / NI Retention ratio = retained earnings / NI Table 3.2: Allied Food Products Income Statements 14 (3) Cash flow statement: a report showing how things affect the balance sheet and income statement will affect the firm’s cash flows Cash flow statement has four sections: operating, long-term investing, financing activities, and summary on cash flows over an accounting period Table 3.3: Allied Food Products Cash Flow Statements (4) Shareholder’s equity statement Last year’s end balance Add this year’s R/E = NI - Common stock cash dividend This year’s end balance Table 3.4: Allied Food Products Statement of Stockholders’ Equity  Free cash flow Accounting profit vs. cash flow Accounting profit is a firm’s net income reported on its income statement. Net cash flow is the actual net cash that a firm generates during a specified period. Net cash flow = NI + depreciation and amortization Free cash flow: a mount of cash available for payments to all investors, including stockholders and debt-holders after investments to sustain ongoing operations FCF = EBIT*(1-T) + depreciation and amortization – (capital expenditures +  in net working capital)  MVA and EVA MVA stands for market value added, which is the excess of the market value of equity over its book value EVA stands for economic value added, which is the excess of net operating profit after tax (NOPAT) over capital costs NOPAT = EBIT*(1-T) Capital costs = total investor-supplied operating capital*after-tax cost of capital Problem 3-5: MVA calculation $500 million of common equity, stock price is $60 per share, market value added is $130 million. How many shares are outstanding? Answer: (500 +130)/60 = 10.5 million shares 15 Problem 3-6: MVA calculation Shareholders’ equity = $35,000,000, number of shares outstanding = 2,000,000 shares, stock price = $30 per share, what is MVA? Answer: market value of stock = 30*2,000,000 = $60,000,000 MVA = 60,000,000 - 35,000,000 = $25,000,000  Income taxes Progressive tax rate system: the tax rate is higher on higher income Taxable income: gross income minus exceptions and allowable deductions as set forth in the Tax Code or the income that is subject to taxes Marginal tax rate: the tax rate applicable to the last dollar made Average tax rate: taxes paid divided by total taxable income Personal income tax: Interest income: taxed as ordinary income Dividend income: was taxed as ordinary income (currently is taxed at a maximum of 15%, will increase after 2012) Capital gains (short-term, less than a year): taxed as ordinary income Capital gains (long-term, more than a year): taxed at a maximum of 15% (will increase after 2012) Capital losses are tax deductible up to $3,000 or to offset capital gains Equivalent pre-tax yield vs. after tax return Equivalent pre-tax yield = tax-free return / (1 – T) After tax return = before tax return (1 – T) Example: suppose your marginal tax rate is 28%. Would you prefer to earn a 6% taxable return or 4% tax-free return? What is the equivalent taxable yield of the 4% tax-free yield? Answer: 6%*(1-28%) = 4.32% or 4% / (1-28%) = 5.56% You should prefer 6% taxable return because you get a higher return after tax, ignoring the risk Corporate income tax: Interest income is taxed as ordinary income Interest expenses are tax deductible Dividend income is 70% tax-exempt (70% dividend exclusion) Dividend paid is not tax deductible Capital gains are taxed as ordinary income Capital losses can only offset capital gains (carry back for 3 years or carry forward for 5 years) 16 Operating losses can offset taxable income (carry back for 2 years or carry forward for 20 years) Deprecation: plays an important role in income tax calculation - the larger the depreciation, the lower the taxable income, the lower the tax bill Depreciation methods: Straight-line method Double-declining balance method Modified accelerated cost recovery system (MACRS) Example: Corporate tax calculation Sales OC excluding depreciation Depreciation Operating income Interest income Dividend income $10,000 Interest payment Capital gains Total taxable income $4,500,000 (3,000,000) (1,000,000) $ 500,000 10,000 3,000 (because 70% exclusion) (200,000) 20,000 $ 333,000 Total tax = 22,250 + (333,000 – 100,000) * (0.39) = $113,120 Marginal tax rate = 39%; Average tax rate = (113,120 / 333,000) = 33.97%  Exercise ST-1 and ST-2 Problems: 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 9 17 Chapter 4 -- Financial Statement Analysis       Financial ratio analysis Du Pont equations Benchmarking Trend analysis Limitations in ratio analysis Looking beyond the numbers  Financial ratio analysis Evaluating a firm’s financial statement to predict the firm’s future performance (1) Liquidity ratios: show a firm’s ability to pay off short-term debt (the relationship of a firm’s cash and other current assets to its current liabilities) Current ratio = current assets / current liabilities Quick ratio (acid test ratio) = (current assets - inventory) / current liabilities Questions: Is it always good to have a very high current or quick ratio? What would happen if they were very low? Why would you like to keep current and quick ratios close to industry averages? (2) Asset management ratios: measure how effectively a firm manages its assets Inventory turnover = sales / inventory Days Sales Outstanding (DSO) = account receivables / average daily sales Fixed asset turnover = sales / net fixed assets Total asset turnover = sales / total assets Firms want to increase turnover ratios and keep DSO as low as possible (3) Debt management ratios: show how the firm has financed its assets as well as the firm’s ability to pay off its long-term debt (how effectively a firm manages its debt) Using debt has tax benefit (interests on debt are tax deductible). On the other hand, too much debt increases the firm’s risk of being bankruptcy. 18 Effect of Financial Leverage (effect of using debt) Debt ratio = total debt / total assets Times interest earned (TIE) = operating income (EBIT) / interest expenses The higher the TIE, the better 19 (4) Profitability ratios: show how profitable a firm is operating and utilizing its assets (shows the combined effects) Operating profit margin = EBIT / sales Profit margin = net income / sales Return on assets (ROA) = net income / total assets Basic earnings power (BEP) = EBIT / total assets Return on equity (ROE) = net income / common equity The higher the returns, the better the performance (5) Market value ratios: relate stock price to earnings and book value and show what investors think about the firm and its future prospects Price / earnings ratio (P/E ratio) = price per share / earnings per share Market / book ratio = market price / book value  Du Pont equations ROA = net income / total assets = (net income / sales) * (sales / total assets) = profit margin* total assets turnover In order to increase ROA, firms can try to improve profit margin and/or total asset turnover ROE = net income / common equity = (net income / sales)* (sales / total assets) * (total assets / common equity) = profit margin * total assets turnover * equity multiplier In order to increase ROE, firms can try to improve profit margin and/or total asset turnover and/or equity multiplier Example 1: Problem 4-10 Given ROA = 3%, ROE = 5%, total assets turnover = 1.5x Questions: What is profit margin? Answer = 2% What is debt ratio? Answer = 40% 20 Example 2: Problem 4-13 Given ROE was 3% last year; management developed a plan to raise debt ratio to 60% with interest charges of $300,000; it expects EBIT of $1,000,000 on sales of $10,000,000 and a total asset turnover of 2; marginal tax rate is 34% Question: What should be new ROE? Answer: NI = (1,000,000 – 300,000) * (1 – 0.34) = $462,000 Profit margin = NI / Sales = 462,000 / 10,000,000 = 4.62% Debt ratio = 60% = 3/5, then EM = 5/2 New ROE = profit margin * total asset turnover * EM = 4.62% * 2 * (5/2) = 23.1%  Benchmarking The process of comparing a particular company with a set of benchmark companies By decomposing ROE into a product of three independent ratios, we can see why Allied Food has a low ROE and how the firm can improve it. Main problems: profit margin and equity multiplier are too low, compared with industry peers 21 Comparing a particular company with industrial averages By comparing Allied Food’s ratios with the industrial averages, we can see the areas where Allied Food is lacking relative to the industry Try to improve in the weak areas: Current and quick ratios; Inventory turnover; DSO; Debt ratio; Profit margin; ROA; BEP; ROE 22  Trend analysis Analyzing a firm’s financial ratios over time to estimate the likelihood of improvement or deterioration in its financial conditions Figure 4-1  Limitations in ratio analysis Different divisions in different industries Industry average Accounting methods Inflation Window dressing Seasonality  Beyond the numbers Tied to one customer? Tied to one product? Rely on one supplier? Operations overseas? Competition? Future products? Legal issues?  Exercise ST-1, ST-2, and ST-3 Problems: 2, 4, 6, 10, 11, and 13 23 Chapter 5 -- Time Value of Money         Time line Future value (FV) and present value (PV) Future value annuity (FVA) and present value annuity (PVA) Perpetuity Uneven cash flows Semiannual and other compounding periods Amortization Applications  Time line Time line: an important tool used to show timing of cash flows 50 50 50 50 0 1 2 3 4 … -100 Cash outflows vs. cash inflows: cash outflows are negative and cash inflows are positive  Future value (FV) and present value (PVP FV: the amount to which a cash flow will grow over a given number of periods Compounding: an arithmetic process of determining the final value of a cash flow or a series of cash flows when compound interest is applied Example: if PV = -$100, I/YR = 5%, N = 3 years, PMT = 0, FV = $115.76 24 The relationship among future value, interest rate, and time PV: the value today of a future cash flow Discounting: a process of finding the present value of a cash flow or a series of cash flows from the future Example: if FV = $115.76, I/YR = 5%, N = 3 years, PMT = 0, PV = -$100 25 The relationship among present value, interest rate, and time  Future value annuity (FVA) and present value annuity (PVA) Annuity: a series of equal payments for a number of specified periods Ordinary annuity: an annuity with payments made at the end of each period FVA: the future value of an annuity for a number of specified periods Example: if PV = 0, PMT = -$100, I/YR = 5%, N = 3 years, FVA = $315.25 26 Annuity due: an annuity with payments made at the beginning of each period -100 0 -100 1 -100 2 3 0 -100 1 -100 2 -100 3 Annuity due Ordinary annuity Each payment in annuity due earns one period of additional interest FVAdue = FVAordinary *(1+I/YR) = $315.25*(1 + 0.05) = $331.01(use BGN mode) Note: your calculator has two modes (END for ordinary annuities and BGN for annuity dues) to deal with different types of annuities. Most often, you use END mode to deal with ordinary annuities. PVA: the present value of an annuity over a number of periods Example: if FV = 0, N = 3, I/YR = 5%, and PMT = -$100, then PVA = $272.32 (using END mode for an ordinary annuity) If it is an annuity due, PVA = $285.94 (using BGN mode) PVAdue = PVAordinary*(1+I/YR) = $272.32*(1 + 0.05) = $285.94 Finding annual payments (PMT), periods (N), and interest rates (I/YR) Example 1: how long will it take to double your money if interest rate is 6%, compounded annually? N = 11.90 years Example 2: if you want to double your money in 10 years, what should be the annual interest rate? I/YR = 7.18% Rule of 72: to double your money, I/YR*N = 72 (approximation) Example 3: you have $15,000 student loan and you want to reply it in next 5 years. The first payment will be made at the end of the year. The annual interest rate is 4%. What should be your annual payment? PMT = $3,369.41 In the above question, what should be your annual payment if the first payment is made today? PMT = $3,239.81 Example 4: you win a lottery and face two choices. You can receive a lump sum of $100,000 today or you will receive $5,000 per year in next 30 years, starting from today. What is the annual interest rate embedded? I/YR = 3.08% 27  Perpetuity Annuity that lasts forever Present value of a perpetuity = payment / interest rate = PMT / (I/YR)  Uneven cash flows A series of cash flows that varies in amount from one period to the other (1) Annuity plus additional final payment 1,000 100 100 100 100 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 If I/YR = 5% FV = FVAordinary + 1,000 = 552.56 + 1,000 = 1,552.56 PV = PVAordinary + PV of 1,000 (1,000 discounted at 5% for 5 years) = 432.95 + 783.53 = 1,216.48 Alternative: PMT = 100, FV = 1,000, N = 5, I/YR = 5%, then PV = 1,216.48 (2) Irregular cash flows Looking for patents or treat each cash flow separately (using CF functions) 100 300 300 300 500 0 1 2 3 4 5 If I/YR = 5%, then PV = 1,265.07 and FV = 1,614.59 Naïve way to deal with uneven cash flows: deal with one cash flow at a time 28  Semiannual and other compounding periods Annual compounding: interest payment is calculated once a year Semiannual compounding: interest payment is calculated twice a year Other compounding periods: quarterly, monthly, daily, and continuously, etc. Effective rate = (1 + i / m)m - 1, where i is the nominal annual rate and m is the number of compounding (for example, for quarterly compounding, m = 4) Example: suppose you have $1,000 to invest and are choosing among banks A, B, and C. Each bank offers the following nominal annual rate and compounding method. Bank A: 7% compounded annually Bank B: 6.9% compounded quarterly Bank C: 6.8% compounded daily Question: which bank would you like to choose? Answer: you should choose Bank B because Effective rate (Bank A) = 7% Effective rate (Bank B) = 7.08% Effective rate (Bank C) = 7.04% Note: If all three banks offer the same annual rate, which bank should you choose? Answer: Bank C Why? Because it offers the highest effective rate 29  Amortization Amortized loan: a loan that is repaid in equal payments over its lift  Applications Bond and stock valuations (will be covered later) Example1: saving for your dream car Your dream car costs $50,000 now and the price will increase by 4% per year. The interest rate in a bank is 6% per year. How much should you save every year (in same amount) in next four year (each deposit will be made at the end of the year) in order to buy the car in 4 years? How much should you save every month in next four years to buy the car, assuming each deposit is made at the end of each month? Answer: Step1: price of the car in four years = 58,492.93 (PV = -50,000, I/YR = 4%, N = 4, PMT = 0, FV = 58,492.93) Step 2: for annual deposit, FV = 58,492.93, I/YR = 6%, N = 4, PV = 0, and solve for PMT to get PMT = $13,370.99 Step 3: for monthly deposit, FV = 58,492.93, I/YR = 6% / 12 = 0.5%, PV = 0, N = 4*12 = 48, solve for PMT = 1,081.24 30 Example 2: saving for your retirement Suppose you save $100 a month for 10 years, starting from age 20, and invest the money in mutual funds for an average return of 12% per year (1% per month, compounded monthly). How much will you have when you reach 60? At what age will you become a millionaire? Answer: Step 1: value of mutual funds when you are 30 years old PMT = -100, I/YR = 1%, N =120, PV = 0, FV = 23,003.87 Step 2: money you will have when retiring PV = -23,003.87, I/YR = 1%, N = 360, PMT = 0, and solve for FV FV = $826,981 Step 3: when FV reaches 1 million PV = -23,003.87, I/YR = 1%, PMT = 0, FV = 1,000,000, solve for N = 379.09 379.09 / 12 = 31.59 years When you are about 62 years old you will become a millionaire.  Exercise ST-2, ST-3, and ST-4 Problems: 21, 22, 24, 25, 31, and 33 31