Unit 1: The Global Tapestry

AP World History Study Guide Unit 1: The Global Tapestry (8%-10% of the AP test) (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 1.1 Developments in East Asia from c. 1200 to c. 1450 CHINA Significance of the Song Dynasty: ° Under the Song Dynasty (960-1279), China enjoyed great wealth, political stability, and artistic and intellectual innovations. ° China developed the greatest manufacturing capability in the world. ° China became the world’s most commercialized society, shifting from local production to market production. ° Buddhism and Confucianism began to spread ° China’s bureaucracy expanded through meritocracy, allowing for greater social mobility. Economic Developments in Postclassical China ° The Grand Canal: An efficient waterway transportation system that enabled China to become the most populous trading area in the world. ° Gunpowder: Technology of gunpowder and guns spread from China to all parts of Eurasia via traders on the Silk Roads ° Agriculture: They built elaborate irrigation systems and used heavy plows pulled by water buffalo or oxen to increase productivity. Production of food increased and China’s population grew quickly. ° Tributes: An arrangement to gain income in which other states had to pay money or provide goods to honor the Chinese emperor. Social Structures in China Emperor gentry,aristocrats, wealthy landowners, civil service peasants,farmers, and artisans merchants ° ° The Song government provided aid to the poor and established public hospitals where people could receive care. ° It was expected that women would defer to men, seen in the constraint of foot binding. Religious Diversity in China ° Buddhism had come to China from its birthplace in India via the Silk Roads. o Three forms of Buddhism from India came to shape Asia, each developing a different emphasis: Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism o Followed the Four Noble Truth and the Eightfold Path ° Neo-Confucianism evolved in China between 770 and 840. It was a syncretic system, combining rational thought with the more abstract ideas of Daoism and Buddhism. JAPAN Feudalism ° For hundreds of years, Japan had been a feudal society without a centralized government. ° Landowning aristocrats, the daimyo, battled for control of the land, while the majority of people worked as rice farmers. Government ° In 1192, the Minamoto installed a shogun, or military ruler, to reign. For the following four centuries, Japan suffered from regional rivalries among aristocrats. ° Not until the l7th century would shoguns create a strong central government that unified the country. KOREA Connection to China ° Korea’s location gave it a very direct relationship with China and had a tributary relationship. ° It centralized its government in the style of the Chinese. ° Culturally, Koreans adopted both Confucian and Buddhist beliefs. Aristocracy ° Unlike with China, Koreans maintained a more powerful landed aristocracy that would not allow for the same amount of social mobility VIETNAM Social Structures ° Vietnamese women enjoyed greater independence in their married lives than did Chinese women in the Confucian tradition. ° Vietnamese preferred nuclear families, in which the father, mother and their children live in one household. ° Vietnamese villages operated independently of a national government; political centralization was nonexistent. ° They adopted a merit-based bureaucracy of educated men, but instead of pledging loyalty to the emperor, officials in Vietnam owed more allegiance to the village peasants. TOPIC 1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam from c. 1200 to c. 1450 Innovations ° Advances in mathematics: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi laid the groundwork for making trigonometry a separate subject. ° Advances in literature: ‘A’ishah al-Ba’uniyyah may be the most prolific female Muslim writer before the 20th century. Many of her works describe her journey toward mystical illumination. ° Advances in medicine: Medical advances and hospital care improved in cities such as Cairo, while doctors and pharmacists studied for examinations for licenses that would allow them to practice. Social Structures ° Islamic society viewed merchants as more prestigious than did other societies in Europe and Asia at the time. ° With the revival of trade on Silk Roads, merchants could grow rich from their dealings across the Indian Ocean and Central Asia. ° Muslim women enjoyed a higher status than Christian or Jewish women. o Allowed to inherit property and retain ownership after marriage. They could remarry if widowed. o Could receive a cash settlement if divorced. o Women could practice birth control. Transfers ° Preservation and commentaries on Greek moral and natural philosophy ° House of Wisdom in Abbasid Baghdad ° Scholarly and cultural transfers in Muslim and Christian Spain Islamic Rule in Spain ° In 711, Muslim forces successfully invaded Spain from the south. ° Most of the continent remained Christian, but Muslims ruled Spain for the next seven centuries. ° Umayyad rulers in Córdoba created a climate of toleration, with Muslims, Christians, and Jews coexisting peacefully. ° They also promoted trade, allowing Chinese and Southeast Asian products to enter TOPIC 1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia from c. 1200 to c. 1450 SOUTH ASIA Political Structures in South Asia ° Southern India was more stable than northern India. The first kingdom, the Chola Dynasty, reigned over southern India for more than 400 years (850—1267). ° Northern India experienced significantly more upheaval than did southern India. After the fall of the Gupta Empire, the Rajput kingdoms gradually formed in northern India and present-day Pakistan. ° Bringing Islam into India, the Delhi Sultanate reigned for 300 years, from the l3th through the l6th centuries. Religion in South Asia ° Before the arrival of Islam, most South Asians practiced Hinduism. ° Differences between Hinduism and Islam: o Hindus pray to many gods, while Mulims are strictly monotheistic. o Hindu artwork and temples are filled with pictures of deities, while Muslims disapprove of any visual representation of Allah. o Hinduism was associated with a hierarchical caste system, while Islam has always called for the equality of all believers. o Hindus recognize several sacred texts, while Muslims look to only the Quran for spiritual guidance. Social Structures in South Asia ° The arrival of Islam did little to alter the basic structure of society in South Asia. ° Most of those who tried to escape the grip of the caste system failed. ° India’s caste system is its strongest historical continuity. ° The Bhakti Movement: Beginning in the 12th century, some Hindus began to draw upon traditional teachings about the importance of emotion in their spiritual life. Rather than emphasize performing rituals or studying texts, they concentrated on developing a strong attachment to a particular deity. SOUTHEAST ASIA ° South Asia strongly influenced its neighbors, particularly the lands of Southeast Asia— today’s Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam. Sea-Based Kingdoms ° The Srivijaya Empire (67H-1025) was a Hindu kingdom based on Sumatra. It built up its navy and prospered by charging fees for ships that traveled between India and China. ° The Majapahit Kingdom (1293—1520) based on Java had 98 tributaries at its height. Like Srivijaya, Majapahit held onto its power by controlling sea routes. Unlike Srivijaya, Majapahit was Buddhist. Land-Based Kingdoms ° The Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka had their roots in the arrival of early immigrants, most likely merchants, from northern India. ° Buddhists arrived in the 3rd century BCE and the island became a hub of Buddhist study. ° The Khmer Empire (802—1431) was situated near the Mekong River and was not dependent on maritime prowess for its power. The kingdom’s complex irrigation and drainage systems led to economic prosperity, making it one of the most prosperous kingdoms in Southeast Asia. TOPIC 1.4 State Building in the Americas The Mississippian Culture ° First large-scale civilization in North America ° Started in Mississippi River Valley ° The Mississippian society had a rigid class structure and a matrilineal society The Maya City-States ° Mayan civilization reached its height between 250 and 900 CE ° Mayans stretched over the southern part of Mexico and much of what is now Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala ° The main source of Mayan government was the city-state, each ruled by a king and consisting of a city and its surrounding territory. ° Each Mayan king claimed to be a descendant of a god (divine right) ° Mayan science and religion were linked through astronomy The Aztecs ° The Aztecs were originally hunter-gatherers who migrated to central Mexico from the north in the 1200s. ° In 1325, they founded their capital Tenochtitlan on the site of what is now Mexico City. ° They built a network of aqueducts and a pyramid that rose 150 fcet into the air. ° Aztecs developed a tributary system ° Aztec government was a theocracy, in which religious leaders had the power ° They worshipped hundreds of deities ° Worship among the Aztecs involved a great many rituals and feast days as well as human sacrifices. ° Women played an im[portant role in the Aztec tribute system since they made the highly valued cloth that local rulers demanded as part of the regular tribute. The Inca ° The Incan Empire was split into four provinces, each with its own bureaucracy. ° Instead of a tributary system, they were subject to the mit’a system, mandatory public service. ° The name Inca means “people of the sun” and Inti, the sun god, was the most important of the Incan gods. ° Priests diagnosed illnesses, solved crimes, predicted the outcome of battles, and determined what sacrifices should be made and to which god. ° The Inca developed sophisticated terrace systems for the cultivation of crops such as potatoes and maize. ° In 1533, the Spanish conquered the core of the empire TOPIC 1.5 State Building in Africa Political Structures in Inland Africa ° The development of Sub-Saharan Africa was heavily formed by the migrations of Bantuspeaking people outward from west-central Africa. ° Communities formed kin-based networks, where families governed themselves ° Groups of villages became districts, and a group of chiefs decided among themselves how to solve the problems of the districts Political Structures of West and East Africa ° The exchange of goods brought them wealth, political power, and cultural diversity. ° The spread of Islam added to the religious diversity of the continent, where animism and Christianity were already practiced. ° Mali: By the 12th century, wars with neighboring societies had permanently weakened the Ghanaian state. In its place arose many new trading societies, the most powerful of which was Mali. ° Zimbabwe: Built its prosperity on a mixture of agriculture, grazing, trade, and, above all, gold. It had rich gold fields. ° Ethiopia: Christianity had spread from its origins along the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea south into Egypt and beyond. Ethiopia flourished by trading goods obtained from India, Arabia, the Roman Empire, and the interior of Africa. Social Structures of Sub-Saharan Africa ° Sub-Saharan Africa’s small communities were organized around several structures: kinship, age, and gender. ° Men dominated most activities that require a specialized skill. ° Women generally engaged in agriculture and food gathering. ° Prisoners of war, debtors, and criminals were often enslaved. Owning a greater number of enslaved people increased one’s social status. ° A strong demand in the Middle East for enslaved workers resulted in an Indian Ocean slave trade between East Africa and the Middle East. Cultural Life in Sub-Saharan Africa ° Because traditional African religions included ancestor veneration, song lyrics provided a means of communicating with the spirit world. ° African music usually had a distinguished rhythmic pattern, and vocals were interspersed with percussive elements, such as handclaps, pots, bells, or gourds. ° Visual arts also commonly served a religious purpose. ° Griots, or storytellers, were the conduits of history for a community. TOPIC 1.6 Developments in Europe from c. 1200 to c. 1450 Feudalism: Political and Social Systems ° Feudalism provided some security for peasants, equipment for warriors, and land to those who worked for a lord. ° Since the entire system was agriculture-based, wealth was measured in land rather than in cash. ° The manorial system provided economic self-sufficiency and defense. The manor produced everything that people living on it required, limiting the need for trade and contact with outsiders. Political Trends in the Later Middle Ages ° In the later Middle Ages, monarchies grew more powerful at the expense of feudal lords by employing their own bureaucracy and military ° King Philip II of France was the first to develop a real bureaucracy. ° The Estates-General was a body that advised the king which included representatives from each of the three legal classes, or estates, in France: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. ° Between 1337 and 1453, the rival monarchies of England and France fought a series of battles known as the Hundred Years’ War. On each side, serving under a monarch stimulated a sense of unity among soldiers who often spoke distinct languages or dialects Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages ° In 1054, the Christian Church was broken into two branches, a split called the Great Schism: Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox. ° The Church established the first universities in Europe. ° Most philosophers, writers, and other thinkers of the Middle Ages were religious leaders. ° The Church held great power in the feudal system. ° The Roman Catholic Church had an extensive hierarchy of regional leaders. The regional religious leaders, called bishops, owed allegiance to the pope, the supreme bishop. ° Wealth and political power led to corruption in the church in the 13th and 14th centuries. Christian Crusades ° Europeans sought to reclaim control of the Holy Land, the region of Palestine in the Middle East containing sites of spiritual significance to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. ° Economic and social trends of the 11th century added to the pressure among Europeans to invade the Middle East. ° The combination of these religious, social, and economic pressures resulted in the Crusades: a series of European military campaigns in the Middle East (1095 - l200s.) Economic and Social Change ° The middle class began to grow. Known as the bourgeoisie, it included shopkeepers, craftspeople, merchants, and small landholders. ° With renewed commerce came larger cities. Populations grew and promoted the growth of towns and of markets that could operate more frequently. ° Jews: Anti-Semitism was widespread among Christians. They viewed Jews as outsiders and untrustworthy. Jews were expelled from England in 1290, France in 1394, Spain in 1492, and Portugal in 1497. ° Muslims: They faced discrimination in Europe. In 1492, the Spanish king expelled the remaining Muslims in the kingdom who would not convert to Christianity. Many Muslims then moved to southeastern Europe. ° As urbanization continued, women lost many rights due to the growing wave of patriarchal thinking and writing. Renaissance ° The Renaissance was a period characterized by a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, culture, art, and civic virtue. ° Johannes Gutenberg’s movable-type printing press permitted manuscripts to be massproduced at relatively affordable costs. It led to a growth in literacy and the rapid spread of ideas. ° One characteristic of the Renaissance was the interest in humanism, the focus on individuals rather than God. Humanists sought education and reform. TOPIC 1.7 Comparisons in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450 State-Building and New Empires ° The Song Dynasty in China continued progressing ° The Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East was fragmented by invaders ° In Africa, the rulers of Mali created a more centralized government ° In the Americas, the Aztecs used a tributary system and the Incas used the mit’a system. ° In Europe, feudal ties reduced in the Western European kingdoms of England and France, but not in Eastern Europe ° Japan, unlike most states, became more decentralized and feudal. Four Types of State-Building, c.1200-c.1450 Processes Description Examples Emergence of New States arise on land • Mamluk Empire (formerly Abbasid territory) States once controlled by • Seljuk Empire (formerly Abbasid territory) another empire • Delhi Sultanate (formerly Gupta territory) Revival of New leadership continues • Song Dynasty (based on the Han Dynasty) Former or rebuilds a previous • Malt Empire (based on the Ghana Kingdom) Empires empire with some • Holy Roman Empire (based on the Roman innovations Empire) Synthesis of A state adapts foreign • Japan (Chinese and Japanese) Different ideas to local conditions • Delhi Sultanate (Islamic and Hindu) Traditions • Neo-Confucianism Expansion in An existing state expands • Incas in South America Scope its influence through • Aztecs in Mesoamerica conquest, trade, or other means • City-states in East Africa • City-states in Southeast Asia State-Building through Trade ° Powered by increased trade, cross-cultural exchanges of technology and innovation increased. ° Paper manufacturing: invented in China in the 2nd century B.C.E., it spread across Eurasia, reaching Europe around the l3th century. The resulting printed material led to increased literacy rates across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. ° Europe benefited from exchanges with the Middle East, and through it with all of Asia Patriarchy and Religion ° Social organization in most cultures remained patriarchal. However, cultures varied. ° Convent life for Christians in Europe and in Jainism and Buddhist religious communities in South Asia provided women with opportunities for learning and leadership. ° In China, women lost independence as the custom of foot binding became more common. Unit 2: Network of Exchange: 8%-10% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 2.1 The Silk Roads Causes of the Growth of Exchange Networks ° The Crusades helped pave the way to expanding networks of exchange, as lords and their armies of knights brought back fabrics and spices from the East. ° Rise of the Mongol Empire: o Parts of the Silk Roads that were under the authority of different rulers were, for the first time, unified in a system under the control of an authority that respected merchants and enforced laws. o The Mongols improved roads and punished bandits, both of which increased the safety of travel on the Silk Roads. ° Improvements in Transportation: o Saddles for camels o Centuries earlier, China had made advances in naval technology (rudder and magnetic compass) Effects of the Growth of Exchange Networks ° Cities along the routes that were watered by rivers became centers of trade. ° To manage the increasing trade, China developed new financial systems. The copper coins they used became too unwieldy to transport for everyday transactions, so the government developed a system of credit known as flying cash. ° The growing demand for luxury goods from Afro-Eurasia, China, Persia, and India led to a corresponding increase in the supply of those goods through expanded production. ° Increased demand also led to the expansion of iron and steel manufactured in China, motivating its proto-industrialization. TOPIC 2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World Genghis Khan ° In 1210, Genghis Khan and his troops headed east and attacked the powerful Jin Empire. ° In 1219, Khan conquered both the Central Asian Kara Khitai Empire and the Islamic Khwarazm Empire farther west. ° By 1227, Genghis Khan’s kingdom reached from the North China Sea to eastern Persia. ° Mongolian soldiers were strong riders and proficient with the short bow. ° He instituted a policy of religious tolerance throughout the empire, which was unusual in the l3th century. ° New trade channels were also established between Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. Mongolian Empire Expands ° Three of Genghis Khan's grandsons set up their own kingdoms, further expanding the empire into Asia and Europe. ° ln 1236, Batu, the son of Khan’s oldest son, led a Mongolian army of 100,000 soldiers into Russia, which at the time was a loose network of city-states and principalities. Batu’s army, which came to be known as the Golden Horde, conquered Russian kingdoms and forced them to pay tributes. ° Resistance to the Mongols created the foundation for future modern Russian state. The Long-Term Impact of the Mongolian Invasions ° Their empire was the largest continuous land empire in history. ° The Mongols built a system of roads and continued to maintain and guard the trade routes. ° The Mongols transferred Greco-Islamic medical knowledge and the Arabic numbering system to Western Europe. ° After the Mongols declined in power, the kingdoms and states of Europe, Asia, and Southeast Asia continued or copied the process of centralizing power. ° Mongol fighting techniques led to the end of Western Europe’s use of knights in armor. TOPIC 2.3 Exchange in the Indian Ocean Causes of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean ° Spread of Islam: Although the Indian Ocean trade had existed as early as 200 BCE, the expansion of Islam connected more cities than ever before. ° Increased demand for specialized products ° Trade of enslaved people also played a role in exchanges in the Indian Ocean. ° Advances in maritime technology ° Growth of States: The trading networks in the Indian Ocean fostered the growth of states to help institutionalize the revenue from trade. Effects of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean ° Some of the very factors that caused expansion of exchange networks in the Indian Ocean also, in time, became effects. ° Diasporic Communities: As a natural result of waiting for favorable winds for travel, these merchants interacted with the surrounding cultures and peoples of the region. ° Increased demand for products caused trade to expand. At the same time, however, it resulted in several effects with long-lasting impact. ° Swahili City-States: The Indian Ocean trade also created thriving city-states along the east coast of Africa, sometimes known as the Swahili city-states. ° Trade brought considerable wealth to the cities on the East African coast. TOPIC 2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes Trans-Saharan Trade ° By the end of the 8th century C.E., the trans-Saharan trade had become famous throughout Europe and Asia. ° Gold was the most precious commodity traded. ° For more than 700 years, trans-Saharan trade brought considerable wealth to the societies of West Africa, particularly the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. ° Merchants also brought Islam, which spread into Sub-Saharan Africa as a result. West African Empire Expansion ° The government of Mali profited from the gold trade, but it also taxed nearly all other trade entering West Africa. ° The great cities of Timbuktu and Gao accumulated the most wealth and developed into centers of Muslim life in the region. ° The growth in trade and wealth gave rise to the need to administer and maintain it (such as establishing currencies). Empires in Western Eurasia and Africa in the 13th Century Mali Al-Andalus Byzantine Empire Kievan Rus Location West Africa Spain Middle East Russia Major City Timbuktu Cordoba Constantinople Kiev Peak Years 12DDs to 14D0s 711 to 1492 330 to 1453 90Ds to 12D0s Key Figures • Sundiata: • Ibn Rushd: • Justinian: • Vladimir I: founder who Islamic legal ruler converted to built a strong scholar and responsible Christianity in trade network philosopher for the Body 989 • Maimonides: of Civil Law • Mansa Musa: political and Jewish scholar religious deader of ethics • Heraclius: shifted focus to • Yaroslav I: codified the legal system the East Legacy • Connected West • Created • Fostered trade and North Africa vibrant, between Asia, first large through trade tolerant Europe, and civilization • Spread Islam in society Africa in Russia West Africa • Preserved • Carried on classical Roman legacy Greek • Developed • Spread Christianit y eastward learning TOPIC 2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity Influence of Buddhism on East Asian Culture ° Buddhism came to China from its birthplace in India via the Silk Roads, and the 7thcentury Buddhist monk Xuanzang helped make it popular. ° Japan and Korea, countries in China’s orbit, also adopted Buddhism, along with Confucianism. ° In Korea the educated elite studied Confucian classics, while Buddhist doctrine attracted the peasants. Spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam ° Through trade, the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism made their way to Southeast Asia as well. ° The sea-based Srivijaya Empire on Sumatra was a Hindu kingdom, while the later Majapahit Kingdom on Java was Buddhist. ° Through merchants, missionaries, and conquests, Islam spread over a wide swath of Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Scientific and Technological Innovations ° Along with religion, science and technology traveled the trade routes. ° Islamic scholars translated Greek literary classics into Arabic, saving the works of Aristotle and other Greek thinkers. ° Scholars also brought back mathematics texts from India and techniques for papermaking from China. ° They made advances in hospital care, including surgery. TOPIC 2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity Agricultural Effects of Exchange Networks ° As the population of China grew, people tended to migrate southward to the original Champa rice growing region, contributing to the growth of cities. ° Environmental Degradation: Increases in population put pressure on resources. o For example, overgrazing outside of Great Zimbabwe was so severe that people had to abandon the city in the late 1400s. Spread of Epidemics through Exchange Networks ° The Mongol conquests helped to transmit the fleas that carried the Bubonic Plague (AKA the Black Death) from southern China to Central Asia, and from there to Southeast Asia and Europe. ° The Black Death had a tremendous impact on Europe, killing one-third of the population there in a few years. ° About 25 million Chinese and other Asians died between 1332 and 1347 TOPIC 2.7 Comparison of Economic Exchange Similarities among Networks of Exchange ° The Silk Roads through the Gobi Desert and mountain passes through China and Central Asia to Southwest Asia and Europe, on which merchants tended to specialize in luxury goods ° The monsoon-dependent trade routes in the Indian Ocean linking East Asia with Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Southwest Asia allowed merchants to exchange goods that were too heavy to transport by land ° The trans-Saharan trade routes from North Africa and the Mediterranean Basin across the desert to West and East Africa were where merchants traded salt from North Africa with gold from the kingdoms south of the desert Exchange Effects ° The trade routes all gave rise to trading cities, the “knots” that held the network together. ° The growth of trading cities gave rise to another effect of the trade networks: centralization. ° Trading cities along each of the trade routes underwent developments, using their wealth to keep the routes and the cities safe. ° Another aspect of trade in the cities that encouraged centralization was the desire for a standardized currency. Widely accepted currencies sped up transactions and enabled merchants to measure the value of products. Unit 3: Land-Based Empires: 12%-15% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 3.1 Empires Expand The Gunpowder Empires ° The term Gunpowder Empires refers to large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South Asia that relied on firearms to conquer and control territories, ° Included the Russian, Ottoman, Safavid, and the Mughal Empires. Europe ° The mid-1400s saw the end of a wave of plagues, the conclusion of the Hundred Years’ War between France and England, and the invention of the Gutenberg printing press followed by an increase in literacy. Russia ° Russia remained tightly linked to Europe. Its capital—whether Kiev, St. Petersburg, or Moscow—was located in Europe. ° Although a product of Mongol influence from Central Asia to the east, Russia was also a product of Europe as a result of Viking invasions and trading. ° When Ivan IV (ruled 1547—1584), called Ivan the Terrible, was crowned tsar in 1547, he immediately set about to expand the Russian border eastward East Asia ° China’s Yuan Dynasty, founded by Mongol invader Kublai Khan in 1271, was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368 after less than a century in power. ° During the Ming era, the Portuguese and other Europeans arrived, aiming to encroach on the Asian trade network. ° In 1644, the powerful Manchu from neighboring Manchuria seized power and established the Qing Dynasty, which ruled until 1911. ° During both of these dynasties, Japan and Korea experienced parallel developments but with unique aspects. Rise of the Islamic Gunpowder Empires ° The warrior leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires shared many traits besides being Muslims: o They descended from Turkic nomads who once lived in Central Asia. o They spoke a Turkic language. o They took advantage of power vacuums left by the breakup of Mongol khanates. o They relied on gunpowder weapons, such as artillery and cannons. TOPIC 3.2 Empires: Administration Centralizing Control in Europe ° England’s King James believed in the divine right of kings, a common claim from the Middle Ages that the right to rule was given to a king by God. ° In England, the Tudors (ruled 1485—1603) relied on the “justices of the peace”, which were officials selected by the landed gentry to maintain peace in the counties of England. ° In contrast to developments in England, the French government became more absolute— directed by one source of power, the king, with complete authority—in the 17th and 18th centuries. (EX: Henry IV, Louis VIII, Louis XIV) Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire ° The noble landowning class, the boyars, stood at the top of the social pyramid. Below them were the merchants. Last and most numerous were the peasants, who would gradually sink more and more deeply into debt and, as a result, into serfdom. ° Peter the Great: The Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 1613 after a period of turmoil following Ivan’s death in 1584. o Peter would eventually lose the support of the Russian clergy over his reforms. o Later in his reign, Peter reorganized the Russian government by creating provinces (first 8 and later 50 administrative divisions). o Provincial officials received a salary, replacing the old system of local officials “feeding off the land” Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art ° St. Petersburg: In the mid-18th century, workers built the famous Winter Palace designed in a European rather than Byzantine style to show Peter’s admiration of western Europe and its rulers. ° Askia the Great of Songhai: Askia made Islam Songhai’s official religion in an attempt to unite his empire. In addition to legitimizing his rule through promoting Islam, he also supported an efficient bureaucracy to bring the empire together. Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Achievements ° Istanbul remained a center of arts and learning. ° Poets and scholars from across Asia met in coffeehouses and gardens. They discussed works by Aristotle and other Greek writers, as well as the works of many Arabic scholars. ° Cultural contributions of the Ottomans included the restoration of some of the glorious buildings of Constantinople, most notably the cathedral of Saint Sophia. TOPIC 3.3 Empires: Belief Systems Protestant Reformation ° Lutheranism: A German monk named Martin Luther concluded that several traditional Church practices violated biblical teachings. o He objected to the sale of indulgences, which granted a person absolution from the punishments for sin, and to simony, the selling of church offices. o Luther challenged the Church by nailing his 95 Theses, to a church door. o Luther advocated for the theological stance of “sola fide,” faith alone, for the basis of salvation for the Christian believer. ° Calvinism: In 1536, John Calvin authored The Institutes of the Christian Religion and helped reform the religious community in Geneva, Switzerland. o The elect, those predestined to go to heaven, ran the community, which was based on plain living, simple church buildings, and governance by the elders of the church. o Calvin’s followers in France were called Huguenots. ° Anglicanism: The last of the three major figures of the Reformation was England’s King Henry VIII (ruled 1509-1547). o Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage so he could marry another woman, Anne Boleyn, but the pope refused. o Henry, with the approval of the English Parliament, set himself up as head of the new Church of England, or Anglican Church—one that would be free of control by the pope in Rome. Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation ° A three part strategy to maintain Catholicism as the largest Christian denomination in the world: o The Church increased the use of the Inquisition to root out and punish nonbelievers. o The Jesuits, or Society of Jesus, a religious order founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola, also opposed the spread of Protestantism. The Jesuits undertook missionary activity throughout the Spanish Empire as well as in Japan and India. o The Council of Trent (1545—1563) corrected some of the worst of the Church’s abuses and concentrated on reaffirming the rituals and improving the education of priests. Wars of Religion ° Germany: Conflict between Lutherans and the Holy Roman Empire resulted in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed each German state to choose whether its ruler would be Catholic or Lutheran. As a result, churches and inhabitants were forced to practice the state religion. ° France: Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which allowed the Huguenots to practice their faith. The edict provided religious toleration in France ° Thirty Years’ War: The final great religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Europe culminated in the Thirty Years’ War (1618—1648), which led to economic catastrophe for most of the continent. o The war culminated in the Peace of Westphalia, which allowed each area of the Holy Roman Empire to select one of three religious options: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism. Scientific Revolution ° In the early 1600s, scientific thinking gained popularity in northern Europe as trends in Renaissance ideas, curiosity, investigation, and discovery spread. ° In 1620, English scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon developed an early scientific method called empiricism, which insisted upon the collection of data to back up a hypothesis. ° Sir Isaac Newton, combining Galileo’s laws of terrestrial motion and Johannes Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, published a work on gravitational force called Principia (1687). TOPIC 3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires Military Might ° Both the Ottoman sultan and Safavid shah used slave soldiers to offset the power of troops who had more loyalty to their tribe or local governor than to the sultan or shah. ° Both the Janissaries and the Ghulams were often recruited from minority religious or ethnic groups found within the empires. ° The Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire went to war over the territorial claims each had at its border. Centralized Bureaucracy ° Ottoman Empire: placed taxes on non-Muslims and on peasants ° Safavid Empire: taxation policies were used to encourage adherence to Shi’a ° Mughal Empire: placed taxes on unbelievers were abolished by Akbar but reinstalled later: also placed taxes on peasants ° The Ming Empire: issued paper currency as a means to facilitate trade and tax collection; however the use of paper money led to rampant counterfeiting and hyperinflation Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections: 12%-15% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 4.1 Technological Innovations from 1450 to 1750 Developments of Transoceanic Travel and Trade ° The voyages by Columbus connected people across the Atlantic Ocean. European traders became go-betweens linking Afro-Eurasia and the Americas. o From the Americas, they obtained sugar, tobacco, and rum. o From Africa, they obtained enslaved people. o From Asia, they obtained silk spices and rhubarb. Classical, Islamic, and Asian Technology ° Portuguese ruler Prince Henry the Navigator strongly supported exploration. He financed expeditions along Africa’s Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Hope. ° Newton’s discovery of gravitation increased knowledge of the tides. As a result, sailors could reliably predict when the depth of water near a shore would be decreasing, thereby exposing dangerous rocks. ° Improvements in cartography also improved navigation. An astronomical chart is any map of the stars and galaxies. Mariners relied on these maps to Guide ships’ direction. ° New types of ships also improved trades. By adjusting the ratio of length to width of a ship, adding or reducing the number of masts, and using different types of sails, builders could adapt ships to improve their efficiency. ° The long-term result of combining navigational techniques invented in Europe with those from other areas of the world was a rapid expansion of exploration and global trade TOPIC 4.2 Explorations: Causes and Events from 1450 to 1750 Comparing Transoceanic Voyages, c. 1300—c. 1800 Sponsoring Empire Explorer Key Voyages China Zheng He • India • Middle East • Africa England John Cabot • North America Portugal Vasco da Gama • West coast of Africa • India Spain Christopher Columbus • Caribbean islands • Central America Spain Ferdinand Magellan • South America • Philippines Purpose Impact To open up trade networks with India, Arabia, and Africa and to spread Chinese culture China decided not to continue exploring To find a sea route to the East by going west from Europe Claimed land in Canada for Britain and established a shorter, more northerly route across the Atlantic than Columbus's route. To open a sea route from Europe to India and China Portugal expanded trade and cultural exchange between India and Europe To find a sea route to India and China going west from Europe Spain led the European exploration and colonization of the Americas To demonstrate that Europeans could reach Asia by sailing west Spain established links between the Americas and Asia across the Pacific Ocean TOPIC 4.3 Columbian Exchange Diseases and Population Catastrophe ° The indigenous people of the Americas had no prior exposure—and therefore no immunity—to the germs and diseases brought by Europeans. ° Disease was responsible for the majority of deaths. ° Spanish soldiers, called conquistadores, brought smallpox with them Animals and Foods ° Another major component of the exchange was the sharing of new crops and livestock in both directions. ° The Europeans brought the horse to the Americas which transformed the culture of the American Indians living in the Plains region. ° European explorers took back Mesoamerican maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peppers, and cacao to their home countries Cash Crops and Forced Labor ° Slavery Sugar’s profitability in European markets dramatically increased the number of Africans captured and sold through the transatlantic slave trade. Portuguese began to import enslaved people from Africa, especially from the Kongo Kingdom and cities on the Swahili coast, for sugar cultivation. ° Slaves often died from backbreaking working conditions, poor nutrition, lack of adequate shelter, tropical heat, and diseases. ° The Spanish noticed Portugal’s success with plantation agriculture and returned to the Caribbean to pursue cash crop cultivation, such as sugar and tobacco. TOPIC 4.4 Maritime Empires Established State-Building and Empire Expansion ° African States: In central West Africa, Portuguese explorers, traders, and missionaries made inroads into the Kongo and Benin kingdoms. ° In 1495, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama invaded the Swahili city-states of East Africa, most of which were commercial centers in the Indian Ocean trade. ° Japan: Just as European states were expanding their trade networks, Japan was sharply restricting its networks. Japan took additional steps to persecute Christians and limit foreign influences. ° China: After the voyages of Zheng He in the 15th century, the Ming Dynasty tried to limit outside influence on China by restricting trade. European Rivalries on Five Continents ° The British East India Company had begun a commercial relationship with the Mughal Empire in the 17th century. ° Portugal controlled a coastal trading post in the southwestern state of Goa. ° France controlled Pondicherry, a city in the southeastern state of Tamil Nadu. ° The East India Company moved into India, spreading its influence. Ultimately, Britain intervened in India politically and militarily to such an extent that it controlled much of the subcontinent. Continuity and Change in Economic Systems ° The Western European search for profit began with Columbus. ° In the early 1500s, the Spanish established a system called the encomienda to gain access to gold and other resources of the Americas. o Encomenderos, or landowners, compelled indigenous people to work for them in exchange for food and shelter ° The silver trade not only made individual Spanish prospectors wealthy, it also strengthened the Spanish economy. ° European powers at the time were adopting mercantilism, an economic system that increased government control of the economy through high tariffs and the establishment of colonies Types of Labor ° Slave labor: Slaves were considered property and were put into domestic and agricultural work (Americas and Africa) ° Serfdom: Serfs were attached to the land and worked for their landlord in subsistence farming (Europe and Asia) ° Indentured Servants: Worked without pay for up to 7 years in domestic work and field work ° Free Peasants: Worked on their own land in farming or craft labor, making payments to the lord and the church TOPIC 4.5 Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed Commercial Revolution ° The transformation to a trade-based economy using gold and silver is known as the Commercial Revolution. ° The Commercial Revolution from four key factors: o the development of European colonies overseas o the opening of new ocean trade routes o population growth o inflation ° The high rate of inflation, or general rise in prices in the l6th and early l7th century, is called the Price Revolution. ° The Dutch East India Company was highly successful as a joint-stock company. It made large profits in the Spice Islands and Southeast Asia. Triangular Trade Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade ° The Atlantic slave trade greatly weakened several West African kingdoms, such as Kongo. ° The loss of so many people slowed population growth. ° Trade competition led to violence among their societies. ° African societies that conducted slave raids, such as the Dahomey and the Oyo, became richer from selling their captives to the Europeans. ° African slave-raiding kingdoms became economically dependent on goods from Europe. ° While the Atlantic trading system weakened Africa in many ways, it also ultimately spurred population growth through an improved diet. TOPIC 4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power from 1450 to 1750 Internal And External Challenges to State Power Portugal • Dutch and English pushed Portugal out of South Asia (external) • Rebellion in Kongo allied with Dutch (external) France • Fronde - civil disturbances against royal power (internal) Russia • Cossack rebellion (internal) • South Asia Pugachev rebellion (internal) • Hindu Marathas ended Mughal rule (internal) Spanish Empire • Pueblo and Apache groups rebelled in present-day New Mexico (internal to the colonies) British Empire • Maroon wars (internal to the colonies) • Gloucester County • Rebellion (internal to the colonies) Metacom’s War (internal to the colonies) • Glorious Revolution (internal) TOPIC 4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies from 1450 to 1750 Social Classes and Minorities in Gunpowder Empires ° The Ottoman social system was built around a warrior aristocracy that soon began to compete for positions in the bureaucracy with the ulama, who were scholars and experts in Islamic law. ° One reason for the success of the Ottoman Empire was its relative tolerance toward Jews and Christians ° Merchants and artisans formed a small middle class in the empire. Below the middle class were the peasants. who were usually poor—particularly because they had to pay tribute to the government European Hierarchies ° In Europe the top level was royalty—members of a royal family. ° The aristocracy or nobility was the next highest level. o The nobility made up a small minority of the population but owned most of the land. o In the Netherlands and England, the nobility held power and took an active part in the government. o In England, large landowners controlled Parliament. o Nobles struggled for power with royalty, the emerging middle class of merchants and skilled workers, priests, and the common people. ° Under the influence of the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment, prejudices against Jews declined somewhat Political and Economic Elites in the Americas TOPIC 4.8 Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750 Transoceanic Travel and Trade ° The most significant change to the global economy in this period was the integration of the Western Hemisphere into the global trading network. ° Technologies used to make sea travel easier o astronomical charts o astrolabe o compass o magnetic compass o lateen sail ° The Columbian Exchange also caused the development of a transoceanic trading network called the Atlantic System. ° The Atlantic System was made up of the regions of Western Europe, Western Africa, and the Americas and involved the movement of goods and people among those regions. Economic Changes ° Europeans established trading ports and cities along the coasts of Africa and the Indian Ocean. ° One consequence of this contact and conflict was that Europeans came to dominate global trade at the expense of Arab, Indian. and Chinese merchants ° European monarchs devised mercantilist economic policies that would provide the ruler with a steady stream of income. Unit 5: Revolutions: 12%-15% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 5.1 The Enlightenment ° The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th to 19th centuries. Important Thinkers of the Enlightenment Feminism ° The French writer Olympe de Gouges fought for women’s rights in the era of the French Revolution by writing “Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen” ° In 1792 in England, the pioneering writer Mary Wollstonecraft published “A Vindication on the Rights of Women.” In it, she argued that females should receive the same education as males. ° In 1545 in Seneca Falls, New York, activists gathered to promote women’s rights and suffrage ° In the UK, women won the full right to vote in 1928. Rise of Zionism ° Zionism: the desire of Jews to reestablish an independent homeland where their ancestors had lived in the Middle East. ° After centuries of battling anti-Semitism, hostility toward Jews, and pogroms, many European Jews had concluded that living in peace and security was not a realistic hope. TOPIC 5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions in the Period from 1750 to 1900 The French Revolution ° In France in the 1780s, revolutionary ideals took on their own spin, summarized in the slogan liberté, égalité, et fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity). ° Causes: ° On July 14, 1789, a crowd in Paris stormed the Bastille, a former prison that symbolized the abuses of the monarchy and the aristocracy. This day became known as French Independence Day. ° The Reign of Terror: a period during which the government executed thousands of opponents of the revolution, including the king and queen began. ° After a period of turmoil and war, Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France in 1804. The Haitian Revolution ° The examples of the recent American and French revolutions led former slave Toussaint L’Ouverture to join the revolts in 1791 and then to lead a general rebellion against slavery. ° His army of enslaved Africans and Maroons established an independent government and played the French, Spanish, and British against each other. ° In 1801, after taking control of the territory that would become the independent country of Haiti, L’Ouverture produced a constitution that granted equality and citizenship to all residents. Nationalism and Unification in Europe ° Italian Unification o Count di Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, led the drive to unite the entire Italian Peninsula under the only native dynasty, the House of Savoy. o Cavour adopted the radical romantic revolutionary philosophy of Giuseppe Mazzini o Cavour allied with the Red Shirts military force led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, which was fighting farther south in the Kingdom of Naples. German Unification ° Prussian leader Otto von Bismarck, who like Cavour favored realpolitik, used nationalist feelings to engineer three wars to bring about German unification ° In 1871, Bismarck founded the new German Empire, made up of many territories gained from the wars TOPIC 5.3 Industrial Revolution Begins Growth of Technology ° The spinning jenny, invented by James Hargreaves in the 1760s, allowed a weaver to spin more than one thread at a time. ° The water frame, patented by Richard Arkwright in 1769, used waterpower to drive the spinning wheel. ° In 1798, inventor Eli Whitney created a system of interchangeable parts for manufacturing firearms for the U.S. military. o Whitney’s system directly led to the division of labor. Britain’s Industrial Advantages TOPIC 5.4 Industrialization Spreads in the Period from 1750 to 1900 Spread of Industrialization ° France had sparsely populated urban centers and was dealing French Revolution. These factors delayed the Industrial Revolution in France. ° Once Germany unified in 1871, it became a leading producer of steel and coal. ° The United States began its industrial revolution in the l9th century. By 1900, the United States was a leading industrial force in the world. ° By 1900, Russia had more than 30,000 miles of railroad connecting its commercial and industrial areas. ° The first country in Asia to industrialize was the one that had the least contact with Europe since the l7th century: Japan. Shifts in Manufacturing ° Indian shipbuilding ultimately suffered as a result of British officials’ mismanagement of resources and ineffective leadership during the period of British colonization in the late 17th and 18th centuries. In 1830, Britain designated ships of the British East India Company as the Indian Navy ° British East India Company controlled parts of the Indian subcontinent from 1757 to 1858 ° Steep British tariffs led to the decline of India’s ability to mine and work metals. ° As the textile industry flourished in India, it undermined the British textile mills in Britain, specifically in Lancaster. The owners of the Lancaster textile mills pressured the British government in India to impose an “equalizing” five percent tax on all textiles produced at more than 80 mills operating in Bombay, thus undermining their profitability. TOPIC 5.5 Technology of the Industrial Age A Second Industrial Revolution ° The developments of the second industrial revolution were in steel, chemicals, precision machinery, and electronics. ° The mass production of steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, became possible with the introduction of the Bessemer Process ° In the mid-1800s, the first commercial oil wells were drilled, tapping into a vast new resource of energy. ° In 1882 in London, the first public power station began production. Electrification led to street lighting and electric street trains in the 1890s. ° A patent for the telephone was issued to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. Global Trade and Migration ° The construction of railroads, such as the Transcontinental Railroad that connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans when it was completed in 1869, facilitated U.S. industrial growth. ° Industrialized countries sought to protect their access to resources and markets by establishing colonies. ° Whereas earlier trade and migration often centered on coastal cities, railroads, steamships, and the telegraph also opened up to exploration and development in the interior regions around the globe. TOPIC 5.6 Industrialization: Government’s Role from 1750 to 1900 Ottoman Industrialization ° Muhammad Ali rose to prominence, and local leaders selected him to be the new governor of Egypt. ° Because of his power, Ali was able to act somewhat independently of the sultan. ° He began by remaking the country’s military based on a European model. He also established schools, sent military officers to be educated in France, and started an official newspaper—the first in the Islamic world. ° Muhammad Ali also pushed Egypt to industrialize. He had textile factories built to compete with those of the French and British. ° In Cairo, he had factories built to produce armaments ° In Alexandria, he set up facilities to build ships so that Egypt could have a navy. Japan and the Meiji Restoration ° Between 1600 and 1854, Japan had very little contact with the rest of the world. ° The great powers of Europe, such as Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Russia, all wanted to sell goods in Japan ° In 1853, a naval squad led by Conquistadores Matthew Perry in 1853 sailed into Edo and Tokyo Bay, asking for trade privileges. Faced with the power of the U.S. warships, the Japanese gave in to U.S. demands. ° Soon the Japanese yielded to similar demands by other foreign states. Reforms by the Meiji State ° It formally abolished feudalism in 1868 by the Charter Oath. ° It established a constitutional monarchy based on the Prussian model in which the emperor ruled through a subordinate political leader. ° It established equality before the law and abolished cruel punishments. ° It created a new school system that expanded educational opportunities, ° It built railroads and roads. ° It subsidized industrialization, particularly in the key industries of tea, silk, weaponry, shipbuilding. and a rice wine called sake. TOPIC 5.7 Economic Developments and Innovations in the Industrial Age Effects on Business Organization ° New ways of organizing businesses arose during the Industrial Revolution. Some manufacturers formed giant corporations in order to minimize risk ° Some corporations became so powerful that they could form a monopoly, control of a specific business and elimination of all competition. In the United States, John D. Rockefeller created a monopoly in the oil industry. ° Despite critics’ charge that corporations undermined individual responsibility, they became a common form of business organization ° Another way to reduce risk was through insurance, especially marine insurance. Lloyd’s of London helped establish the insurance industry. Effect on Mass Culture ° A culture of consumerism as well as of leisure developed among the working and middle classes of society in Great Britain and living standards rose for some. ° Consumption needed to keep up with production, so producers began to advertise heavily, particularly to the middle class whose members Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization: 12%-15% of AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 6.1 Rationales for Imperialism from 1750 to 1900 Nationalist Motives for Imperialism ° With a strong sense of identity and loyalty to a state, many world powers boldly asserted authority over other territories. ° After losing its American colonies, Britain looked for new lands to open to settlement. ° France compensated for its humiliating defeat by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War by expanding its overseas territories ° Italy and Germany were newly unified states in the late-19th century. Each wanted colonies not only for economic and strategic reasons but also for prestige. ° Japan in East Asia Japan asserted its nationalist pride through incursions into Korea. Cultural and Religious Motives for Imperialism ° The attitudes of whites toward others were a form of racism. Colonial powers generally believed that they were inherently superior to those they subjugated. Pseudoscientists claimed to have proof of the intellectual and physical inferiority of nonwhite races. ° Some thinkers adapted Darwin’s theory of biological evolution to society, creating the theory known as Social Darwinism ° Colonizers introduced their own language, political, educational, and religious institutions and exerted other cultural influences on architecture and recreational activities in their colonies. ° Missionaries supported imperialism by persuading people to give up their traditional beliefs, such as ancestor veneration, and adopt the faith of most Europeans, Christianity. Economic Motives for Imperialism ° Seeking ways to maximize profits, companies chartered by the British, French, and Dutch governments signed commercial treaties with local rulers in India, East Africa, and the East Indies. These treaties gave the Europeans the right to establish trading posts and ports to protect their interests. ° After the Industrial Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, Britain was the leading economic power throughout the first half of the 19th century and already had a sizable colonial empire. As the Second Industrial Revolution progressed, other nations began to challenge Britain’s economic lead. TOPIC 6.2 State Expansions from 1750 to 1900 The Scramble for Africa ° Otto von Bismarck of Germany hosted the Berlin Conference, a meeting where Europeans established colonial borders that were merely artificial lines that meant little to the people who lived within them. ° New borders divided long-unified societies into different colonies and united longtime rival groups into the same colonies. ° The British and Afrikaners fought over land. This conflict came to a boil in the Boer Wars. In the end, the British army drove the Afrikaners and the Africans from their lands ° By 1900, the only African countries unclaimed by Europeans were Abyssinia (modernday Ethiopia) and Liberia. Imperialism in East Asia ° European nations carved out spheres of influence within China over which they had exclusive trading rights and access to natural resources ° Between 1899 and 1901, an anti-imperialist group called the Boxers was attacking Chinese Christians and Western missionaries ° The Empress Dowager Cixi encouraged the Boxers and in 1900 ordered that all foreigners be killed. However, most of the estimated 100,000 people who were killed were Chinese Christians. U.S. Imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific ° In 1823, President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that European nations should not intervene in the affairs of the countries in the Western Hemisphere. ° White Americans believed that they had a Manifest Destiny—a natural and inevitable right to expand to the Pacific Ocean. ° The U.S. victory in the Spanish-American War in 1898 brought Guam, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines under U.S. control. ° The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine stated that if countries in Latin America demonstrated “instability,” the United States would intervene. TOPIC 6.3 Indigenous Responses to State Expansion from 1750 to 1900 Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas ° The British issued the Proclamation of 1763. This act reserved all the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River for Native Americans. However, after winning independence, citizens of the new United States soon overran the Ohio and Illinois river valleys. ° After the discovery of gold in 1829 on Cherokee land in Georgia, attempts to force the Cherokee off their land began. ° After Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Cherokee and other Southeast Native American tribes were forced to relocate to what is now Oklahoma. ° A Native American resistance movement, known as the Ghost Dance, resulted in the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, marking the end of the Indian Wars and a loss for the Natives. Southeast Asian Resistance ° In 1596 several revolts broke out in provinces around Manila, marking the beginning of the Philippine Revolution. o The Spanish-American War broke out in 1898, and after a decisive American victory in the Battle of Manila Bay, exiled Filipino revolutionaries returned.. o The Treaty of Paris merely transferred control of the Philippines from Spain to the United States. o Hostilities had broken out in what was to be known as the Philippine-American War. The war ended in a U.S. victory in 1902 TOPIC 6.4 Global Economic Developments from 1750 to 1900 Technological Developments ° The introduction of railroads lowered the cost of transporting raw materials for shipment and helped open up colonial markets for manufactured goods. ° Railroad technology was a means of extracting as many resources as possible from subject lands while paying colonial laborers as little as possible. ° After the development of more efficient steam engines in 1870, steamships became practical for long distances. ° Invented in 1832, the electric telegraph transformed communications. Instead of taking days, weeks, or even months, news could travel instantaneously. Agricultural Products and Raw Materials ° Under control of imperialist powers, subsistence farmers abandoned their traditional ways and grew cash crops instead ° Guano, bat, and seabird excrement is rich in nitrates and phosphates. These make it an excellent natural fertilizer. ° Britain’s Parliament banned Indian cotton textiles in 1721 because they competed with the native wool industry ° Rubber was used to produce tires for bicycles (and eventually automobiles), hoses, gaskets, waterproof clothing, and shoe soles among other items. ° The machinery in Europe’s factories required constant lubrication to keep it working, creating a demand for palm oil, which was also used for candle making. ° The tusks of elephants provide the product ivory. lt was used primarily for piano keys, billiard balls, knife handles, and ornamental carvings. Global Consequences ° Industrialization was accompanied by the need to find raw materials that could be turned into finished products to be sold globally—often bought with the profits from raw materials. ° As urban populations grew, the demand for food was increasingly met by imports made possible by new technology such as refrigeration. ° Farmers were allowed to raise only cash crops, such as sugar, cocoa, or groundnuts, at the expense of other agricultural products. TOPIC 6.5 Economic Imperialism from 1750 to 1900 Economic Imperialism in Asia ° The English East India Company formed in 1600 to engage in the lucrative spice trade. However, the company soon ran into opposition from the Dutch ° The Dutch East India Company had a monopoly on trade with the Dutch East Indies in present-day Indonesia, where the Spice Islands were located. ° In 1830, the Dutch government introduced the Culture System, which forced farmers to choose between growing cash crops for export or performing corvée labor, compulsory unpaid work. ° Chinese goods such as porcelain, silk, and tea were in great demand in Great Britain. However, the Chinese were not interested in British goods, and in this trade imbalance, British silver reserves became very low. ° Japan, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States sought the same trading privileges that Britain attained after winning the Opium Wars. By the end of the century, these nations began forcing China to give them exclusive trading rights in areas known as spheres of influence. Imperial Exploitation of Colonial Crops Commodity Opium Imperial States Great Britain Origin of Commodity Middle East or South Asia Consequences • Opium addiction weakened many people in China. • China’s economy weakened as massive amounts of silver went to Britain to pay for opium. Cotton Great Britain and other European countries South Asia. Egypt, Sudan • Cotton became central to the global slave economy. • Food supplies declined as farmers switched to growing only cotton. Palm Oil All Industrialized countries in Europe Sub-Saharan Africa • European states created and controlled a monocrop economy. while local populations did not profit from the industry. ° European powers met native resistance with brutal retaliation. • Imperial states created railroads and pathways to transport goods back to Europe. TOPIC 6.6 Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World Migration through Labor Systems ° Indian laborers migrated to British colonies in the Caribbean, South Africa, East Africa, and Fiji. ° Chinese laborers migrated to California and British Malaya to build railroads and serve as farmhands, gardeners, and domestics. ° Japanese laborers migrated to Hawaii, Peru, and Cuba to work on sugar plantations. ° Many people became indentured as a way to pay for their transportation from a desperately poor community to one with more opportunity. ° Many Chinese and Indian workers were an early substitute for the slave trade. They were forced or tricked into servitude. Britain first tried this form of labor after ending the slave trade in 1806. Migration in the Face of Challenges ° Poverty was the principal reason that drove Indians to leave the subcontinent. In 1833, the British began sending Indians to Mauritius as indentured laborers to replace slaves on the sugar plantations. ° The Chinese diaspora did not begin in earnest until the middle of the 19th century, with the gold rushes in California, South Australia, and western Canada. ° People emigrated from Ireland for many reasons. Some left when Ireland became part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Others left because of religious discrimination from their British rulers. ° The first wave of Italian emigration began with the unification of Italy in 1561 and continued until 1900. More than 7 million people left Italy during those four decades. TOPIC 6.7 Effects of Migration Effects of Migration on Receiving Societies ° Ethnic enclaves, clusters or neighborhoods of people from the same foreign country, formed in many major cities of the world. ° Chinese enclaves: o The Chinese who migrated to Southeast Asia thrived under colonial rule. o Chinese immigrants first came to the United States in large numbers during the height of the California gold rush. ° Indian enclaves: o Many Indians went to Mauritius, islands off the southeast coast of Africa, and Natal a colony that is today part of South Africa, as indentured servants on sugar plantations o Both Hindus and Muslims emigrated from India to South Africa. The Hindus brought with them their caste system and the social laws that stem from it, but they soon abandoned the caste system. o Indian traders settled in many countries where there were indentured laborers. Prejudice and Regulation of Immigration ° The California constitution of 1879 included several provisions that discriminated against the Chinese: o It prohibited the state, counties, municipalities, and public works from hiring Chinese workers. o It prevented them, and others who were not considered white, from becoming citizens on the grounds that they were “dangerous to the well-being of the State." o It encouraged cities and towns either to remove Chinese residents from within their limits or to segregate them in certain areas. Unit 7: Global Conflict: 8%-10% of AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 7.1 Shifting Powers After 1900 Revolution in Russia ° By the early 20th century. Russia was falling behind most of Europe, the United States, and Japan’s wealth and power. ° Russia’s most obvious challenges were internal. ° Russia then became weaker in international affairs: o It lost the Crimean War (1853-1856) against the Ottoman Empire, which was supported by Great Britain and France. o It lost the Russo-Japanese War in a battle for power in East Asia. ° In the fall of 1917, the Bolsheviks, an organization representing the revolutionary working class of Russia under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, seized power and set up a communist government with Lenin at its head. o Throughout the capitalist world, from Europe to the United States to Japan, people worried that communists were a danger to their governments as well. Upheaval in China ° China faced daunting domestic concerns in the 19th century, each of which weakened support for the government. China consisted of dozens of ethnic groups. The largest group was the Han. The rulers of the Qing Dynasty were Manchus. Many of the Han never fully accepted the Qing as legitimate rulers. ° China experienced rapid population growth between the mid-1700s and mid-1500s, but could not expand the amount of farmland or productivity rapidly enough to provide a stable food supply. Any natural disaster, such as a drought or a flood, could result in the early deaths of thousands of people. Power Shifts in Mexico ° Mexico entered the 20th century as an independent nation firmly under the control of a dictator, Portirio Diaz. ° In 1910, Diaz jailed Francisco Madero, the opposition candidate for president. This act, combined with the growing opposition to Diaz’s strong-armed policies, accommodation to foreign powers, and opposition to land reform ignited the Mexican Revolution. ° Until 1920, Mexico suffered from political instability and devastating violence. ° Mexico adopted a new constitution in 1917. ° The Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI, was formed in 1929. TOPIC 7.2 Causes of World War I ° The causes of WW1 can be easily remembered by the acronym MANIA ° Alliances played a large role in the escalation of the war. This diagram displays which countries were allied and aiding each other. TOPIC 7.3 Conducting World War I Changes in Warfare ° The defining experience for most soldiers in this war was the time spent in the trenches, long ditches dug in the ground with the excavated earth banked in front in order to defend against enemy fire. ° Poison gas was one of the most insidious weapons of the new style of warfare. Chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas were used during World War 1. ° Developed in the late 1800s, machine guns could fire more than 500 rounds of ammunition per minute, increasing the deadly impact of warfare. ° ° Submarines played a large part in World War I, wreaking havoc on the shipping lanes of the Atlantic Ocean. The British developed tanks to protect troops as they moved across vast areas of difficult terrain, even over trenches, with the ability to fire at the enemy. The United States Enters the War ° On May 7, 1915, a German submarine attacked and sank the Lusitania, an ocean liner carrying more than 100 U.S. citizens among its passengers. ° The event that finally pushed the United States into the war was the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram in January 1917. In this document, the German government offered to help Mexico reclaim territory it had lost to the United States in 1848 if Mexico allied itself with Germany in the war. Total War ° This strategy, known as total war, meant that a nation’s domestic population, in addition to its military, was committed to winning the war. ° Millions of civilians, including women, worked in factories to make war materials. ° Propaganda is communication meant to influence the attitudes and opinions of a community around a particular subject by spreading inaccurate or slanted information. Posters and articles in newspapers and magazines often depicted the enemy crudely or misrepresented the facts of the war completely. The Paris Peace Conference ° Big Four: Woodrow Wilson (United States), David Lloyd George (Great Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy). ° President Wilson's pledge to establish “peace without victory” reflected his belief that no one country should be severely punished or greatly rewarded. ° Wilson pushed for Fourteen Points. He particularly wanted to create a League of Nations, an organization in which all nations of the world would convene to discuss conflicts openly. Although the other nations agreed to establish the League, the U.S. Senate voted against joining it. ° The Treaty of Versailles treated Germany harshly o Germany had to pay billions of dollars in reparations for damage caused by the war o They had to give up all of their colonies o They had to restrict the size of their armed forces. TOPIC 7.4 Economies in the Interwar Period The Great Depression ° Although the 1920s brought modest economic gains for most of Europe, the subsequent Great Depression ended the tentative stability. ° Agricultural overproduction and the United States’ stock market crash in 1929 were two major causes of the global economic downturn. ° Roosevelt's New Deal: Three Rs o Relief for citizens who were suffering, including the poor, the unemployed, farmers, minorities, and women o Recovery to bring the nation out of the Depression, in part through government spending o Reform to change government policies in the hopes of avoiding such disasters in the future. ° The Great Depression was a global event. Though it started in the United States and Europe, it spread to Latin America, Africa, and Asia. ° By 1932, more than 30 million people worldwide were out of work. Political Revolutions in Russia ° Although Lenin and the Bolshevik Party had promised “peace, land, and bread” during World War I, Russia faced starvation during the Russian Civil War ° Hundreds of thousands of Russians, Ukrainians, and others revolted against the Russian government’s actions. ° Under Lenin’s New Economic Plan (NEP), he reintroduced private trade, allowing farmers to sell their products on a small scale. ° After Lenin’s death, Joseph Stalin took control of the Communist Party, setting himself up as a dictator. Once in power, Stalin instituted the first Five-Year Plan, which was meant to transform the USSR into an industrial power. o He punished his political opponents by executing them or sentencing them to life in the gulags. o His agricultural policies led to the deaths of many millions of citizens. Rise of Right-Wing Governments ° Mussolini in Italy o Amid the general bitterness of the 1920s, Mussolini and his allies in the Fascist Party managed to take control of the parliament. o Mussolini became a dictator, repressing any possible opposition o Militaristic propaganda infiltrated every part of the Fascist government. ° Franco in Spain o After the economic decline in the early 1930s, two opposing ideologies, or systems of ideas, battled for control of Spain. o The Spanish Civil War that resulted soon took on global significance as a struggle between the forces of democracy and the forces of fascism. o The war ended when Franco’s forces defeated the Loyalist army o Spain did not officially enter WW2, but the government offered some help to Germany, Italy, and Japan. TOPIC 7.5 Unresolved Tensions After World War I Effects of the War ° In South Asia and West Africa, the war renewed the hopes of people in these regions for independence. ° The Allies established a mandate system to rule the colonies and territories of the Central Powers. ° The Allied countries—including France, Great Britain, and Japan—were able to increase their imperial holdings through a new form of colonization. ° The Middle East experienced enormous upheaval because of the fall of the Ottoman Empire. Palestine, Transjordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq all became League of Nations mandates Anti-Colonialism in South Asia ° In 1919, armed colonial forces fired hundreds of shots into an unarmed crowd in India, killing an estimated 379 people and wounding 1,200 more. ° By the 1920s, Mohandas Gandhi had brought the congress’s cause to the Indian masses and caught the attention of the world. ° His Satyagraha (“devotion-to-truth”) movement embarked on a campaign of civil disobedience that encouraged Indians to break unjust laws and serve jail time. Nationalism in East Asia ° In 1910. Japan took control of Korea. On March 1, 1919, Koreans began a series of protests that involved as many as 2 million Koreans out of a population of 17 million. The occupying Japanese forces killed several thousand. ° China hoped that the Allies would support China’s desire to reclaim land on the Shandong Peninsula in northeast China. However, Japan wanted the same land. o At the Paris Peace Conference, Great Britain and France sided with Japan o Chinese intellectuals and workers staged anti-Japanese demonstrations beginning on May 4, 1919. The May Fourth Movement symbolized China’s growing nationalism and demand for democracy. ° In the years after the May Fourth protests, two main groups fought for power: o The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was led by Mao Zedong. Mao believed that China’s communist revolution could be based on the revolt of peasants, who made up the vast majority of China’s population. o The Chinese Nationalist Party was led in 1925 by Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang was a conservative and had a deep-seated distrust of communism. In 1927, Chiang’s forces attacked and nearly annihilated Mao’s forces, initiating the Chinese Civil War. TOPIC 7.6 Causes of World War II TOPIC 7.7 Conducting World War II Germany’s Early Victories and Challenges ° Once war broke out in Europe, Hitler embarked on a strategy called blitzkrieg, or lightning war, to quickly subdue Poland. ° Germany’s rapid success in Poland encouraged Hitler to attack and conquer Denmark and Norway in April 1940 and the Netherlands, Belgium, and France in the following month. ° In the 1941 Lend-Lease Act, the United States gave up all pretensions of neutrality by lending war materials to Britain. ° After failing to invade Britain, Hitler turned east. He attacked the Soviet Union to eliminate Bolshevism and to create land for settlement and development for the German people. ° the United States did not enter the war until after the Japanese bombed the American fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941 Home Fronts ° World War II was a total war. ° Most countries mobilized all their resources, including the civilian population, to achieve victory. ° The United States ramped up production of the resources required for war, including ships, tanks, planes, landing craft, radar equipment, guns, and ammunition. ° The U.S. government promoted the art of “Rosie the Riveter” to encourage women to succeed at jobs that were once thought to be for men. Victory for the Allies ° Hitler spent the war’s final days hiding in a bunker in Berlin. The end came on April 30, 1945, when Hitler committed suicide. ° Despite initial hesitations about using nuclear weapons, President Truman ordered the U.S. Army Air Force to drop the first atomic bomb on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, resulting in an estimated total of 140,000 Japanese civilian deaths. ° The months of Allied victories, combined with these devastating nuclear attacks, caused Japan to surrender unconditionally on August 14 Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization: 8%-10% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 8.1 Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization Bringing the War to an End ° During World War II, the leaders of Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union, known as the Big Three, held several meetings to plan for the post-war world. ° During the Tehran Conference in Iran in November 1943, the Allies agreed that the Soviet Union would focus on freeing Eastern Europe, while Britain and the United States would concentrate on Western Europe. ° At the Yalta Conference, at a resort on the Black Sea, the leaders focused on plans for reconstructing Eastern Europe and for defeating Japan. o Franklin Roosevelt wanted free democratic elections in Eastern Europe. He also wanted the Soviets to join the war against Japan. o Stalin demanded influence over Eastern Europe. ° The final meeting among leaders of the Big Three, the Potsdam Conference, began in July 1945 in Germany o Harry Truman represented the United States. Churchill started the conference but lost his position as prime minister in mid-July and was replaced by Clement Atlee. o Truman insisted on free elections in Eastern Europe. However, by then Soviet troops had occupied the region. Stalin refused Truman’s demand. Shifting Balance of Power ° When the war ended in 1945, parts of Europe and Asia had been devastated. The war resulted in 40 million to 60 million deaths. ° It destroyed factories, roads, bridges, and other structures needed for industry ° Worst hit were the Soviet Union, Poland, and Germany. ° Countries such as Great Britain and France, despite their losses, maintained strong traditions of democracy and the rule of law. ° Of the major countries involved in the war, the United States suffered the least. ° The United States provided financial aid with the Marshall Plan TOPIC 8.2 The Cold War & TOPIC 8.3 Effects of the Cold War TOPIC 8.4 Spread of Communism After 1900 Communism in China ° In China, the Communists and the Nationalists began fighting for control of the country in 1927. However, after the Japanese invaded, the two sides agreed to focus on fighting them instead of each other. ° After the defeat of the Japanese in 1945, the Chinese Civil War resumed. ° In 1958, China went through more land reform as part of the policy called the Great Leap Forward. o Peasant lands were organized into communes, large agricultural communities where the state held the land, not private owners. Those who protested this policy could be sent to “reeducation camps” or were killed. ° In 1966, Mao attempted to reinvigorate China’s commitment to communism. Its impact on China was similar to the impact of Stalin’s purges in the Soviet Union. Land Reform in Latin America ° Throughout Latin America, leaders saw the concentration of land ownership as a barrier to progress. Hence, as countries freed themselves from colonialism, they considered land reform. ° In Venezuela, the government redistributed some five million acres of land ° A democratically elected government under Jacob Arbenz in the Central American country of Guatemala began efforts at land reform. Land Reform in Asia and Africa ° During World War II, Japan occupied Vietnam, which France still claimed as a colony. At the end of the war in 1945. Vietnam declared independence from Japanese and French control. ° Southern Asia had been under British rule since 1858. That changed in 1947. India was partitioned in 1947, creating two countries: Pakistan and India. Both countries struggled to establish their new relationship and economies. India undertook economic reforms: o 1960: The state passed land reform, but they were overturned by courts. o 1963: Tenants won the right to purchase land from landowners. o 1969: New laws allow tenants to become frill owners of land. o 1974: Laws provide for fixed hours of work and minimum wages. TOPIC 8.5 Decolonization After 1900 Decolonization in Ghana and Algeria ° Britain agreed to negotiate independence for its West African colony of the Gold Coast, just as it had for its colonies in South Asia. o The Gold Coast combined with the former British Togoland to form Ghana, the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence in the 20th century. o Ideas from modern nation-states influenced Ghanaian nationalism. ° In northern Africa, the French colony of Algeria endured far more violence than Ghana before becoming independent. Mounting social, political, and economic crises in Algeria resulted in political protests. o Many Algerians, driven by feelings of nationalism, campaigned for independence after World War II. The Algerian War for Independence began in 1954, and it involved many groups. o In 1958, French President Charles de Gaulle had a new mandate for expanded presidential power under the constitution of the new Fifth Republic. De Gaulle planned the steps through which Algeria would gain independence. Nationalism and Division in Vietnam ° World War II interrupted France’s long colonial rule in Indochina, but France reoccupied the southern portion of Vietnam when the war ended. ° A bloody struggle began against the forces of Ho Chi Minh, the communist leader of North Vietnam. ° Ho Chi Minh appealed to nationalist feelings to unite the country under a single communist government. ° France responded by attempting to reestablish its colonial rule, sparking a Vietnamese war of independence that lasted until 1954. ° War broke out between the communist North and the South. Struggles and Compromise in Egypt ° Having long been under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt became a nominally independent kingdom in 1922. ° However, the British retained some of the same treaty rights there that they had held under their mandate following World War I. ° A 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty allowed more Egyptian autonomy. ° The Suez Crisis began on October 29, 1956, when Israeli armed forces pushed into Egypt toward the Suez Canal after Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-70) nationalized the canal, a valuable waterway that controlled two-thirds of the oil used by Europe. TOPIC 8.6 Newly Independent States Israel’s Founding and Its Relationships with Neighbors ° The Zionist movement originated in the 1890s from reaction to the Dreyfus Affair. ° Zionists hoped that the new state could be established in Palestine because that was where their ancestors had lived. In modern times, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire, and most of its inhabitants were Arabs who practiced Islam. ° In a new state, Zionists argued, Jews could be free of persecution ° In 1915, after World War I, Britain was given a mandate over former Ottoman lands in the Middle East. Soon Zionists began to immigrate to Palestine from Europe and from other Middle Eastern areas ° World War II and the deaths of six million Jews in the Holocaust provided another impetus for Jewish immigration. ° War broke out immediately between Israel, which had support from the United States, and the Palestinians, who had support front neighboring Arab countries Women Gain Power in South Asia ° In some newly emerging countries, women became heads of state. Often, they replaced their fathers or husbands. ° In India and Pakistan, women won the right to vote in 1947. ° The world’s first female prime minister was Sirimavo Bandaranaike. She won that position in 1960 in Ceylon (later Sri Lanka). ° In 1966, two years after the death of India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, his only child, Indira Gandhi, became India’s leader. ° Pakistan elected Benazir Bhutto prime minister in 1988. She was the first elected female leader of a majority Muslim country. TOPIC 8.7 End of the Cold War Nonviolent Resistance as a Path to Change ° The most prominent of African American civil rights leaders in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s was a Baptist minister, the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. The civil rights movement used various tactics to achieve its goals: o Court decisions, such as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, that banned forced racial segregation of schools in the United States o A year-long boycott of public buses in Montgomery, Alabama ( 1955-1956), which ended segregation in public transit o Massive marches, such as the 250,000-person March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1964 ° In South Africa, the white-minority government codified a system of racial segregation, called apartheid into law in the 20th century. Leading the black resistance to apartheid was a socialist lawyer, Nelson Mandela. He was known for leading nonviolent protests. 1968: The Year of Revolt ° In Yugoslavia, students marched against the authoritarian government. ° In Poland and Northern Ireland, people protested over religious issues. ° In Brazil, marchers demanded improvements in public education and fairer treatment of workers. ° In Japan, students protested both university financial policies and government support for the United States in the war in Vietnam. An Age of Terrorism ° The Catholic-Protestant conflict in Northern Ireland became more violent in the l960s with Catholics fighting as part of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Protestants with the Ulster Defense Association. Some members of the IRA took their independence campaign to England by engaging in acts of terrorism, the use of violence to achieve political ends. ° Another group that used terrorist tactics to advance a political agenda was the Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA) organization, founded in 1959, which wanted independence for the Basque region in northern Spain. ETA actions killed more than 800 people and injured many others. ° One of the deadliest groups was al-Qaeda. Financed by Saudi billionaire Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda carried out attacks in many countries, including one in the United States on September 11, 2001. Unit 9: Globalization: 8%-10% of the AP test (c. 1200 to c. 1450) TOPIC 9.1 Advances in Technology and Exchange After 1900 The Green Revolution ° In the mid-20th century, the Green Revolution emerged as a possible long-time response to hunger. ° Scientists developed new varieties of wheat, rice, and other grains that had higher yields and greater resistance to pests, diseases, and drought. ° More recently, scientists have used genetic engineering—manipulating a cell or organism to change its basic characteristics. ° Many small farmers could not afford the new fertilizers or pesticides. For this reason, they were unable to compete with large landowners. Energy Technologies ° In 1900, coal accounted for about half of the global energy consumed. As extraction, refinement, and transportation technologies allowed for widespread use, petroleum, also known as crude oil, and natural gas joined coal in fueling industrial output and helped increase productivity. ° Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, are nonrenewable resources. ° Fossil fuels have contributed to air pollution and to the cloak of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide ° Technologies continue to be developed to combat the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases as well as minimize harm from nuclear power. Medical Innovations ° In 1928, Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. Penicillin became the first antibiotic, a useful agent in curing bacterial infections. ° During World War 11, antibiotics saved the lives of soldiers who would have died in any previous war from a minor wound that became infected. ° After the war. antibiotics spread to civilian use, where they fought a range of illnesses. TOPIC 9.2 Technological Advances and Limitations After 1900: Disease ° Progress in science and medicine, combined with government-run public health measures, drastically reduced illnesses and deaths from many diseases after 1900. These included pandemics, epidemic diseases that spread across national borders. ° Smallpox had been eliminated from the planet, except for the culture kept alive at the Centers for Disease Control in the United States. ° Other diseases persisted, especially those related to poverty, including malaria, tuberculosis, and cholera. ° New epidemics also emerged, such as flu, HIV/AIDS, and Ebola. Disease and Poverty ° Malaria: A parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes in tropical areas, malaria killed more than 600,000 people each year in the early 2lst century. ° Tuberculosis: Another disease associated with poverty is tuberculosis (TB), an airborne infection that spreads through coughs and sneezes and affects the lungs. A cure was developed involving antibiotics and a long period of rest. ° Cholera: A bacterial disease that spreads through contaminated water and causes about 95,000 deaths per year. Like tuberculosis and malaria, cholera affects mainly poor people in developing countries. TOPIC 9.3 Technological Advances: Debates About the Environment After 1900 ° During the 20th and 21st centuries, human agricultural, industrial, and other commercial activity contributed to many environmental changes that led to increased competition for increasingly scarce resources. These problems include: o Deforestation: the loss of Earth’s trees as a result of cutting down trees so the land could be used for agriculture o Desertification: the removal of the natural vegetation cover through expansions and intensive use of agricultural lands arid and semi-arid land o A decline in air quality as a result of increased pollutants in the air o Increased consumption of the world’s supply of fresh water Causes of Environmental Changes ° Population Growth: In 1900, the world population was 1.6 billion. By 1950 it had risen to 2.55 billion, and by 2000 the population was 6.12 billion. ° Urbanization: Another cause of environmental change is the increasing size and number of cities. ° Globalization and Industrialization: As industry spread to developing countries, energy and other natural resources used in manufacturing were in demand, drawing further on the reserves of resources. Effects of Environmental Changes ° With the rapidly growing urban and industrial population, some experts predict oil could be used up at a fast rate, within the next 30 to 40 years. ° While supplies of coal will last longer, if coal is used to make up for the loss of petroleum, coal reserves could also be depleted in 60 years. ° According to the United Nations, 31 countries are facing water scarcity and morc than 1 billion people lack clean, accessible drinking water. ° Factories, automobiles, airplanes, and many other products and processes of’ industrialization have emitted huge amounts of pollutants, including carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases TOPIC 9.4 Economics in the Global Age Acceleration of Free-Market Economies ° India and other countries that had been non-aligned during the Cold War relaxed restrictions on trade in the l990s. This opening up of a country’s economy is called economic liberalization. ° In Chile in 1973, Augusto Pinochet took power in a U.S.-backed coup against a democratically elected socialist government led by Salvador Allende. During his rule, the Chilean economy took a turn away from state control toward a free-market approach. ° In 198l, Deng Xiaoping became the Chinese leader. Under him, the Communist Party backed away from its commitment to economic equality and more actively promoted economic growth. Economic Change: New Knowledge Economies ° In the late 1900s, revolutions in information and communications technology led some countries to undertake a new kind of economy—the knowledge economy. ° Finland, for example, had been an agrarian economy in the 1950s but followed other European countries in industrializing after World War II. In the 1990s, Finland turned a corner by entering the global marketplace, encouraging competition, and establishing the Science and Technology Policy Council to set a direction of economic growth through technology and innovation. ° Japan followed a somewhat different path. After World War 11, Japan implemented economic policies similar to 18th-century mercantilist policies that were designed to increase exports and decrease imports, as well as policies to boost competitiveness. Transnational Free-Trade Organizations ° Many countries signed an international accord, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which lifted restrictive barriers to trade. ° In 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) took over GATT’s operations. The WTO made rules that governed more than 90 percent of all international trade. ° A multinational corporation is one that is legally incorporated in one country but that makes or sells goods or services in one or more other countries. The joint-stock companies of the Commercial Revolution, such as the British East India Company and Dutch East India Company were the earliest examples of multinational corporations. TOPIC 9.5 Calls for Reform and Responses After 1900 Steps toward Racial Equality ° In the United States, African Americans won major victories against discrimination and segregation. Through the 1965 Civil Rights Act, which outlawed discrimination based on race, color. religion. sex, or national origin, and the 1961 Voting Rights Act, which banned discrimination in voting, the federal government stepped in to protect the rights of all citizens. ° South Africa’s Colonial Legacy South Africa’s system of apartheid, instituted in 1948, enforced the segregation of people based on race. The apartheid system in South Africa was ended through a series of negotiations between 1990 and 1993 and through unilateral steps by the de Klerk government. Steps toward Gender Equality Landmark Events in Global Feminism after 1900 Date Event Highlight March 1911 First International Women’s Day Celebration April 1915 Meeting of First International Congress of Women United Nations First World Conference on Women June 1975 December 1979 September 1995 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) Meeting of Fourth International Congress of Women One million demonstrators in Austria, Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland stand for women’s rights Representatives from 12 nations. Including the United States, attended. Representatives from 133 nations met in Mexico City and planned for the advancement of women over the next decade. An “international bill of rights for women" adopted by United Nations Thousands of participants and activists met in Beijing, China, where then-First Lady Hillary Clinton declared that “women’s rights are human rights." TOPIC 9.6 Globalized Culture After 1900 Political, Social, and Artistic Changes ° Political Changes: After the Cold War, both economic and cultural barriers fell, bringing countries closer together. Nations formed cooperative regional organizations such as the European Union and NAFTA as well as global associations such as the United Nations for conflict resolution and the World Trade Organization to regulate international trade. ° Social Changes: International organizations and collaboration brought people of different cultures into closer contact with one another, just as international exchanges had done in the past. Rights movements—civil rights and women’s rights especially—helped bring formerly marginalized voices into the mainstream conversation. ° Artistic Changes: Cubism, a style Picasso used in his famous painting “Guernica," challenged traditional perspective in the visual arts. Atonal music such as that composed by Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) explored musical expression outside of familiar tonalities, to name just a few examples. Jazz emerged and became an international language. Global Consumer and Popular Culture ° In the 1920s, popular culture— the culture of everyday people rather than the educated elite—expressed itself through new media: radio and motion pictures. ° Radio, movies, and later television created a culture shared throughout a nation, and eventually throughout the world. ° Radio provided a variety of programs, from easy-going comedies to music hours featuring the latest in big band entertainment, and during World War 2 it played a vital role in national defense in most industrialized nations. ° Movies provided relief from the anxieties and pressures of the Great Depression while reflecting it in its themes. Charlie Chaplin’s “Little Tramp” character of silent movies epitomized the down and out. TOPIC 9.7 Resistance to Globalization After 1900 Resisting Globalization ° Much of the chocolate that consumers bought in the early 21st century had its origins in child labor in West Africa. ° Working conditions in Western nations could also be harsh. In 2019, employees of’ Amazon’s warehouses described such intense pressure to fulfill orders that workers risked being fired if they took a bathroom break. ° In 2013, the collapse of the Rana Plaza factory, an eight-story building in Dhaka, Bangladesh, shocked the world. More than 1,000 people died and another 2,500 suffered injuries. ° Critics of globalization pointed out that the fuel involved in shipping products increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the environment, thus worsening the climate emergency. ° Many conservative groups also distrust globalization. In 2016, 52 percent of British voters agreed to leave the European Union, an international political and economic organization of 28 countries. This British exit was nicknamed Brexit. Anti-Globalism ° The anti-globalization movement has grown into a social movement as well. Its followers tend to focus on these issues: o Human rights, which are basic freedoms that every person has, such as freedom from slavery and freedom to express opinions o Fair trade, which is a system that ensures the person who provided the good or service receives a reasonable payment for it o Sustainable development, which means business ventures that allow people and companies to make a profit without preventing future generations from meeting their own needs o Debt relief or debt restructuring so that countries that owe huge sums to the IMF do not have to risk economic breakdown Sources ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° College Board: AP® World History: Modern Course and Exam Description AMSCO® Advanced Placement® World History: Modern https://www.freeman-pedia.com/ https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-world-history Princeton Review: Cracking the AP World History: Modern Exam 2020 AP World History Crash Course https://www.thoughtco.com/renaissance-timeline-4158077 https://pt.slideshare.net/fruittingles2605/causes-ww2-europe/2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I https://www.sutori.com/story/causes-of-the-french-revolution-PvP2caBGq7bGf63B6wD7H3ee https://slubne-suknie.info/?n=hobbes+locke+and+montesquieu+t+chart