Workers Should Work Lecture Notes

The organization in this case needs to have a centralized structure so that low-level workers are not forced into making too many decisions and the workers should work independently to prevent errors from cascading through the system. This includes not just quantity and quality of production, but also outcomes like coordination; innovation; and worker attraction, motivation, and retention. In many cases, there are trade-offs associated with the choices, and the more you know about these trade-offs, the better decisions you can make in terms of making your team or organization more competitive. The organization needs to create a fit between its environment, competitive strategy, and philosophy on the one hand, with its jobs and organizational design on the other. Job analysis has focused on analyzing existing jobs to gather information for other human resource management practices such as selection, training, performance appraisal, and compensation. Job design, on the other hand, has focused on redesigning existing jobs to make them more efficient or more motivating to jobholders. Thus job design has had a more proactive orientation toward changing the job, whereas job analysis has had a passive, information-gathering orientation. Work-flow design is the process of analyzing the tasks necessary for the production of a product or service, prior to allocating and assigning these tasks to a particular job category or person. Only after we thoroughly understand work-flow design can we make informed decisions regarding how to initially bundle various tasks into discrete jobs that can be executed by a single person. Organization structure refers to the relatively stable and formal network of vertical and horizontal interconnections among jobs that constitute the organization. Only after we understand how one job relates to those above (supervisors), below (subordinates), and at the same level in different functional areas (marketing versus production) can we make informed decisions about how to redesign or improve jobs to benefit the entire organization. WORK-FLOW ANALYSIS to identify the outputs of work, to specify the quality and quantity standards for those outputs, and to analyze the processes and inputs necessary for producing outputs that meet the quality standards. This conception of the work-flow process is useful because it provides a means for the manager to understand all the tasks required to produce a number of high-quality products as well as the skills necessary to perform those tasks. Every work unit—whether a department, team, or individual—seeks to produce some output that others can use. An output is the product of a work unit, can be identifiable object or a service. Merely identifying an output or set of outputs is not sufficient. Once these outputs have been identified, it is necessary to specify standards for the quantity or quality of these outputs. this first step in deciding on the number of products or services offered is a critical step when it comes to structuring the work. Analyzing Work Processes Once the outputs of the work unit have been identified, it is possible to examine the work processes used to generate the output. The work processes are the activities that members of a work unit engage in to produce a given output. team-based job design is becoming increasingly popular in contemporary organizations. The main challenge with team-based work design is to make sure that there is effective coordination and communication between team members Teams are not a panacea and for teams to be effective, it is essential that the level of task interdependence (how much they have to cooperate) matches the level of outcome interdependence (how much they share the reward for task accomplishment). There is a great deal of value in studying workflow processes and this is best illustrated when private equity groups come in and buy a failing company at a low price, revamp the workflow process, and then sell the company again at a higher price. Private equity groups employ efficiency experts who try to wring out every ounce of waste in production operations. When efficiency experts first come into a company, they are looking for three different kinds of waste: (1) movement that creates no value, (2) the overburdening of specific people or machines, and (3) inconsistent production that creates excessive inventories. Organizations often work hard to minimize overstaffing via lean production techniques. Lean production refers to processes developed in Japan, but then adopted worldwide, emphasizing manufacturing goods with a minimum amount of time, materials, money—and most important —people. Lean production tries to leverage technology, along with small numbers of flexible, well-trained, and skilled personnel in order to produce more custom-based products at less cost. This can be contrasted with more traditional “batch work” methods, where large groups of low-skilled employees churn out long runs of identical mass products that are stored in inventories for later sale. In lean production systems, there are fewer employees to begin with, and the skill levels of those employees are so high that the opportunity to cuts costs by laying off employees is simply less viable. Many have attributed the lower “job cut” to a “production cut” ratio experienced in the most recent recession to the use of job redesign initiatives that emphasize lean production over more traditional approaches. Analyzing Work Inputs The final stage in work-flow analysis is to identify the inputs used in the development of the work unit’s product. As shown in Figure 4.1, these inputs can be broken down into the raw materials, equipment, and human skills needed to perform the tasks. Raw materials consist of the materials that will be converted into the work unit’s product. Organizations that try to increase efficiency via lean production techniques often try to minimize the stockpile of inputs via “just-in-time” inventory control procedures. there are also downsides to “just-in-time” inventory management practices. Specifically, the efficiency gained from maintaining an inventory measured in days rather than weeks creates a of lack of flexibility Equipment refers to the technology and machinery necessary to transform the raw materials into the product. Increasingly, equipment refers to software programs that try to support human operators. Although most of the early software programs were designed to free human operators from many mundane tasks, increasingly new software is capable of analysis and decision making. Thus, rather than “up-skilling” the work, many programs “de-skill” the work, and over time, people who use it become less self-reliant. the amount of money that an organization invests in equipment is calculated in terms of the amount of “capital spending per worker,” the average age of equipment in U.S. plants is 7.4 years old—the highest figure in 20 years. EVIDENCE-BASED HR A key element of managing workflow efficiently is relying on the latest empirical evidence regarding best practices for certain routine tasks and then making sure every employee engages in standardized protocols. The final input in the work-flow process is the human skills and efforts necessary to perform the tasks. ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE Whereas work-flow design provides a longitudinal overview of the dynamic relationships by which inputs are converted into outputs, organization structure provides a cross-sectional overview of the static relationships between individuals and units that create the outputs. Organization structure is typically displayed via organizational charts that convey both vertical reporting relationships and horizontal functional responsibilities. Dimensions of Structure Two of the most critical dimensions of organization structure are centralization and departmentalization. Centralization refers to the degree to which decision-making authority resides at the top of the organizational chart as opposed to being distributed throughout lower levels (in which case authority is decentralized).Departmentalization refers to the degree to which work units are grouped based on functional similarity or similarity of work flow. Although there are an infinite number of ways to combine centralization and departmentalization, two common configurations of organization structure tend to emerge in organizations. The first type, referred to as a functional structure, is shown in Figure 4.2. A functional structure, as the name implies, employs a functional departmentalization scheme with relatively high levels of centralization. High levels of centralization tend to go naturally with functional departmentalization because individual units in the structures are so specialized that members of the unit may have a weak conceptualization of the overall organization mission. many organizations try to keep the size of each subunit small enough that people within the subunit feel like they can make a difference and feel connected to others. People within very large subunits experience reduced feelings of individual accountability and motivation, which hinders organizational performance. Research suggests that these types of problems start to manifest themselves once a group exceeds 150 people and hence many organizations try to limit subunits to this specific size. Because of their work-flow focus, their semi-autonomous nature, and their proximity to a homogeneous consumer base, divisional structures tend to be more flexible and innovative. They can detect and exploit opportunities in their respective consumer base faster than the more centralized functionally structured organizations. In fact, when highly functional structures that are really built for efficiency and cost containment try to compete via speed and flexibility, serious problems can ensue. Divisional structures are not very efficient because of the redundancy associated with each group carrying its own functional specialists. Also, divisional structures can “self-cannibalize” if the gains achieved in one unit come at the expense of another unit. Lack of coordination caused by decentralized and divisional structures can be especially problematic with new and emerging organizations that do not have a great deal of history or firmly established culture. Higher levels of centralization and more functional design of work make it easier in this context to keep everyone on the same page while the business builds experience.24 Decentralized and divisional structures can also create problems if the standalone divisions start making decisions that are overly risky or out of line with the organization’s larger goals. Alternatively, functional structures are very efficient, with little redundancy across units, and provide little opportunity for self-cannibalization or for rogue units running wild. Also, although the higher level of oversight in centralized structures tends to reduce the number of errors made by lower level workers, when errors do occur in overly centralized systems, they tend to cascade through the system as a whole more quickly and can, therefore, be more debilitating. Moreover, these structures tend to be inflexible and insensitive to subtle differences across products, regions, or clients. Functional structures are most appropriate in stable, predictable environments, where demand for resources can be well anticipated and coordination requirements between jobs can be refined and standardized over consistent repetitions of activity. This type of structure also helps support organizations that compete on cost, because efficiency is central to making this strategy work. Divisional structures are most appropriate in unstable, unpredictable environments, where it is difficult to anticipate demands for resources, and coordination requirements between jobs are not consistent over time. This type of structure also helps support organizations that compete on differentiation or innovation, because flexible responsiveness is central to making this strategy work. Jobs in functional structures need to be narrow and highly specialized. Workers in these structures (even middle managers) tend to have little decision-making authority or responsibility for managing coordination between themselves and others. The choice of structure also has implications for people who would assume the jobs created in functional versus divisional structures. For example, managers of divisional structures often need to be more experienced or high in cognitive ability relative to managers of functional structures.30 The relatively smaller scope and routine nature of jobs created in centralized and functional structures make them less sensitive to individual differences between workers. The nature of the structure also has implications for relationships, in the sense that in centralized and functional structures people tend to think of fairness in terms of rules and procedures, whereas in decentralized and divisional structures, they tend to think of fairness in terms of outcomes and how they are treated interpersonally Job analysis refers to the process of getting detailed information about jobs. Job analysis is the building block of everything that human resource managers do. Almost every human resource management program requires some type of information that is gleaned from job analysis: selection, performance appraisal, training and development, job evaluation, career planning, work redesign, and human resource planning. The process of job evaluation involves assessing the relative dollar value of each job to the organization to set up internally equitable pay structures. Career planning entails matching an individual’s skills and aspirations with opportunities that are or may become available in the organization. Two types of information are most useful in job analysis: job descriptions and job specifications. A job description is a list of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities (TDRs) that a job entails. TDRs are observable actions. It is critical to strike an effective balance between breadth and specificity when constructing job descriptions. A job specification is a list of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that an individual must have to perform the job.Knowledge refers to factual or procedural information that is necessary for successfully performing a task. A skill is an individual’s level of proficiency at performing a particular task. Ability refers to a more general enduring capability that an individual possesses. Finally, other characteristics might be personality traits such as one’s achievement motivation or persistence. Thus KSAOs are characteristics about people that are not directly observable; they are observable only when individuals are carrying out the TDRs of the job. the process of job analysis entails obtaining information from people familiar with the job. We refer to these people as subject-matter experts because they possess deep knowledge of the job. it will be useful to go to the job incumbent to get the most accurate information about what is actually done on the job. incumbents may provide the most accurate estimates of the actual time spent performing job tasks. However, supervisors may be a more accurate source of information about the importance of job duties. Incumbents also seem more accurate in terms of assessing safetyrelated risk factors associated with various aspects of work, and in general the further one moves up the organizational hierarchy, the less accurate the risk assessments. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) We lead this section off with the PAQ because this is one of the broadest and most wellresearched instruments for analyzing jobs. Moreover, its emphasis on inputs, processes, relationships, and outputs is consistent with the work-flow analysis approach that we used in leading off this chapter (Figure 4.1). The PAQ is a standardized job analysis questionnaire containing 194 items.43 These items represent work behaviors, work conditions, and job characteristics that can be generalized across a wide variety of jobs. They are organized into six sections: Information input—Where and how a worker gets information needed to perform the job. Mental processes—The reasoning, decision making, planning, and information processing activities that are involved in performing the job. Work output—The physical activities, tools, and devices used by the worker to perform the job. Relationships with other persons—The relationships with other people required in performing the job. Job context—The physical and social contexts where the work is performed. Other characteristics—The activities, conditions, and characteristics other than those previously described that are relevant to the job. The job analyst is asked to determine whether each item applies to the job being analyzed. The analyst then rates the item on six scales: extent of use, amount of time, importance to the job, possibility of occurrence, applicability, and special code (special rating scales used with a particular item) this technique provides information about the work performed in a format that allows for comparisons across jobs, whether those jobs are similar or dissimilar. Another advantage of the PAQ is that it covers the work context as well as inputs, outputs, and processes Technological changes in the nature of work, global competition, and a shift from stable, fixed manufacturing jobs to a more flexible, dynamic, service-based economy were quickly making the system obsolete.46 For all these reasons, the Department of Labor abandoned the DOT in 1998 and developed an entirely new system for classifying jobs referred to as the Occupational Information Network, or O*NET. Instead of relying on fixed job titles and narrow task descriptions, the O*NET uses a common language that generalizes across jobs to describe the abilities, work styles, work activities, and work context required for various occupations that are more broadly defined (e.g., instead of the 12,000 jobs in the DOT, the O*NET describes only 1,000 occupations) most inaccuracy is likely to result from job descriptions simply being outdated. For this reason, in addition to statically defining the job, the job analysis process must also detect changes in the nature of jobs. many researchers and practitioners are pointing to a trend referred to as “dejobbing” in organizations. This trend consists of viewing organizations as a field of work needing to be done rather than a set of discrete jobs held by specific individuals. Job design is the process of defining how work will be performed and the tasks that will be required in a given job. Job redesign refers to changing the tasks or the way work is performed in an existing job. Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ), a specific instrument that reliably measures these and other job design characteristics The focus of the mechanistic approach is identifying the simplest way to structure work that maximizes efficiency. This most often entails reducing the complexity of the work to provide more human resource efficiency—that is, making the work so simple that anyone can be trained quickly and easily to perform it. This approach focuses on designing jobs around the concepts of task specialization, skill simplification, and repetition. Scientific management was one of the earliest and best-known statements of the mechanistic approach.57 According to this approach, productivity could be maximized by taking a scientific approach to the process of designing jobs. The motivational approach to job design has roots in organizational psychology and management literature and, in many ways, emerged as a reaction to mechanistic approaches to job design. It focuses on the job characteristics that affect psychological meaning and motivational potential, and it views attitudinal variables (such as satisfaction) as the most important outcomes of job design. The prescriptions of the motivational approach focus on increasing the meaningfulness of jobs through such interventions as job enlargement, job enrichment, and the construction of jobs around socio technical systems.62 A model of how job design affects employee reactions is the “Job Characteristics Model.”63 According to this model, jobs can be described in terms of five characteristics. Skill variety is the extent to which the job requires a variety of skills to carry out the tasks. Task identity is the degree to which a job requires completing a “whole” piece of work from beginning to end. Autonomy is the degree to which the job allows an individual to make decisions about the way the work will be carried out. Feedback is the extent to which a person receives clear information about performance effectiveness from the work itself. Task significance is the extent to which the job has an important impact on the lives of other people. Although all five characteristics are important, the belief that the task is significant because performing it well leads to outcomes one values may be the most critical motivational aspect of work.64 This can often be enhanced by making it clear to the worker how his or her job affects other people, whether they be customers, co-workers or society in general The biological approach to job design comes primarily from the sciences of biomechanics (i.e., the study of body movements), work physiology, and occupational medicine, and it is usually referred to as ergonomics. Ergonomics is concerned with examining the interface between individuals’ physiological characteristics and the physical work environment. The goal of this approach is to minimize physical strain on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the way the human body works. It therefore focuses on outcomes such as physical fatigue, aches and pains, and health complaints. Any job that creates a significant number of injuries is a target for ergonomic redesign. The perceptual–motor approach to job design has roots in human-factors literature. Whereas the biological approach focuses on physical capabilities and limitations, the perceptual–motor approach focuses on human mental capabilities and limitations. The goal is to design jobs in a way that ensures they do not exceed people’s mental capabilities and limitations. This approach generally tries to improve reliability, safety, and user reactions by designing jobs to reduce their information-processing requirements. In designing jobs, one looks at the least capable worker and then constructs job requirements that an individual of that ability level could meet. Similar to the mechanistic approach, this approach generally decreases the job’s cognitive demands. SBAR stands for situation, background, assessment, and recommendation, which constitute the four components of every successful handoff. The three most critical dimensions needed to describe teams include (a) skill differentiation, the degree to which members have specialized knowledge or functional capacities that make it more or less difficult to substitute members, (b) authority differentiation, the degree to which decision-making responsibility is vested in individual members, subgroups of the team, or the collective as a whole, and (c) temporal stability, the degree to which team members are expected to work together for a long time. By carefully and simultaneously attending to both efficiency and satisfaction aspects of job redesign, managers can sometimes achieve the best of both worlds.