Motivating by Job Design The Job Characteristics Model

Motivating by Job Design: The Job Characteristics Model Job design – the way the elements in a job are organized. It influenced employee effort. The Job Characteristics Model Job characteristics model (JCM) – a model that proposes that any job can be described in terms of 5 core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. 1. Skill variety – the degree to which a job requires variety of different activities using specialized skills and talents. 2. Task identity – the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. 3. Task significance – the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. 4. Autonomy – the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom and desertion to the individual in scheduling the work ad in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. 5. Feedback – the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. Skill variety, task identity, and task significance combine to create meaningful work the employee will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile. Jobs with high autonomy give employees a feeling of personal responsibility for results. Feedback will show them how effectively they are performing. The JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards when they obtain all 3 of these psychological states. The more these are present, the greater the employees’ motivation, performance, and satisfaction, and the lower their absenteeism and likelihood of leaving. When employees are “other oriented” (concerned with the welfare of others), the relationship between intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction were weaker. The degree of psychological ownership we feel towards our work enhances our motivation, especially when ownership is shared among a work group. If individuals work together online but not in person, their experience of meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results suffer. To be high on motivating potential, the job must be high on at least one of the 3 factors that lead experienced meaningfulness AND high on both autonomy and feedback (this leads to a high score of motivating potential; motivation, performance, and satisfaction improve while turnover and absenteeism reduce). The model is individualistic (considers the relationship between the employee and his or her work), so it may not have the same effects in collectivistic cultures as in individualistic cultures (U.S). Job Redesign Job Rotation Job rotation – the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another (with similar skill requirements at the same organizational level; cross-training. Implement when employees suffer from over-routinization of their work. This increases job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Disadvantages: (1) work that is done repeatedly may become habitual and routine, which makes decision making more automatic and efficient, but less thoughtfully considered; (2) training costs increase when each rotation necessitates a round of training; (3) moving a worker into a new position reduces overall productivity for that role; (4) creates disruptions when members of the work group have to adjust to new employees; (5) supervisors may have to spend more time answering questions and monitoring the work. Relational Job Design Relational job design – constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work. This motivates individuals towards increased job performance. Alternative Work Arrangements Another approach to motivating is to consider alternative work arrangements. Flextime Flextime – flexible work hours. Employees much work a specific number of hours per week but may vary their hours of work within limits. Benefits of flextime: reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, reduced overtime expenses, reduced hostility towards management, reduced traffic congestion, elimination of tardiness, and increased autonomy and responsibility for employees – any of which may increase employee job satisfaction. Flextime increases profitability. Drawback: it is not applicable to every job or every worker. Job Sharing Job sharing – an arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-hr-a-week job (full time job). Benefits of job sharing: Allows an organization to draw on the talents of more than one individual for a given job. Drawback: difficulty in finding compatible partners to job share and the negative perceptions of individuals not completely committed to their jobs and employers. Telecommuting Telecommuting – working from home at least 2 days a week on a computer that is linked to the employer’s office. Benefits of telecommuting: larger labor pool from which to select, higher productivity, improved morale, and reduced office-space costs. Positive relationship between telecommuting and supervisor performance ratings. Drawbacks: less direct supervision, difficult to coordinate teamwork, can reduce knowledge transfer in organizations. Managers are challenged to handle the demotivation of office workers who feel they are unfairly denied the freedom of telecommuters. Increase feelings of isolation and reduced job satisfaction. It does not reduce work-family conflicts. Vulnerable to the “out of sight, out of mind” effect. Disadvantage when it comes to raises and promotions because not a lot of “face time.” Employee Involvement and Participation Employee involvement and participation (EIP) – a participative process that uses the input of employees to increase employee commitment to organizational success. EIP programs should be tailored to local and national norms. o Ex. High power-distance cultures (expects and accepts differences in authority) don’t find the EIP program helpful. Examples of Employee Involvement Programs Participative management – a process in which subordinates (person under authority) share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. This sharing is done formally through surveys or briefings or informally through daily consultations as way to enhance motivation through trust and commitment. For participative management to be effective, followers must have trust and confidence in their leaders. Benefits: higher stock returns, lower turnover rates, and higher labor productivity. It is not a sure means of improving performance. Representative Participation – a system in which workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees. 2 most common forms of representation are: Works councils – groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions about employees. Board representatives – employees who sit on a company’s B.O.D. and represent employees’ interests. In order for motivation to increase, an employee must feel his or her interests are well represented and make a difference to the organization. EIP programs increase employee’s intrinsic motivation – because giving employees control over key decisions, along with ensuring that their interests are represented. Using Rewards to Motivate Employees What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure Internal equity – the worth of the job to the organization (established through job evaluation), and external equity – the competitiveness of an organization’s pay relative to pay in its industry (established through pay surveys). Initially setting pay levels entails balancing internal equity and external equity. How to Pay: Rewarding Individual Employees through Variable-Pay Programs Variable-pay program (pay for performance) – a pay plan that bases a portion of an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance. Forms: piece-rate, merit-based, bonus, profit-sharing, and employee stock ownership plans. The variable portion may be all or part of a paycheck. Either (1) group-based pay-for-performance plans may have a strong positive effect on organizational performance, (2) variable-pay plans increase job satisfaction only if employee efforts is rewarded as well as performance. Most U.S. organizations encourage or require pay secrecy – which is bad. It has a detrimental effect on job performance. It adversely affects high performers more than other employees. It increases employees’ perception that pay is subjective, which can be demotivating. Piece-rate pay – a pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. It provides no base salary and pays the employee only for what he or she produces. Drawback: They are not feasible for many jobs (Ex. emergency room doctor and nurse earn salaries regardless of how many patients they see). Merit-based pay – a pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings. Advantage: high performers can get bigger raises. Drawbacks: they are based on an annual performance appraisal and thus are only as valid as the performance ratings, which are often subjective. Bonus – a pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance. Advantage: they are motivating for employees. Profit-sharing plan – an organization-wide program that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability. Advantage: higher levels of employee commitment, higher levels or profitability. Employees have a greater feeling of psychological ownership. Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) – a company established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits. Using Benefits to Motivate Employees Flexible benefits – a benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package individually tailored to his or her own needs and situation. It accommodates different needs by each employee based on age, marital status, partner’s benefit status, and number and age of dependents. Drawbacks: costly too administrate, and identifying the motivational impact on different provisions is challenging. Using Intrinsic Rewards to Motivate Employees Employee Recognition Programs Employee recognition programs – a plan to encourage specific employee behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions. Advantage: praise is free. Drawbacks: highly susceptible to political manipulation by management.