University:
California State University, Northridge
Course:
POLS 155 | American Political Institutions
Academic year:

2024
Views:

339

Pages:

35
Author:

scu214ss

Chapter 10: Elections The Paradox of Voting in America Americans believe voting is important. They see it as:  a civic duty  key to maintaining popular control of government  the very essence of democracy At the same time, Americans tend not to vote and voter turnout is low by historical standards.   Between 70 and 75 percent of the voting-age population is registered to vote. About 50 percent vote in presidential elections. 85 ANALYZING THE EVIDENCE Voter turnout for American presidential elections was significantly higher in the nineteenth century than in the twentieth. What institu tional change caused the sharp decline in turnout be tween 1890 and 191 0? Why did this change have such a dramatic effect? Did it have any positive outcomes? 80 75 UJ u 70 1- 65 z UJ u 60 0:: UJ Cl. 55 50 45 1864 1876 1888 1900 1912 1924 1936 1948 1960 1972 1984 1996 2004 YEAR SOURCES: For 1860-1928, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab.html) pt. 2, p. 1071; for 1932-92, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993 (Washing ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1993), p. 284; for 1996-2004, Federal Election Com mission data. OTE: Data reflect the population of eligible voters, the precentage of the voting-age popula tion that voted would be smaller. FIGURE 10.2 Voter Turnout in Presidential Elections ANALYZING THE EVIDENCE The United States trails many democracies in the rate at which citizens vote. Are Americans simply more apathetic about poli tics, or do institutional fea tures in the United States produce greater obstacles to participation? Italy Australia Sweden Germany Spain United Kingdom Turkey Canada France United States Mexico Brazil Thailand 0 10 20 30 OTE: Average between 1945 and 2006. SOURCE: International Institute of Democracy and Electoral Assistance FIGURE 10.1 Voter Turnout around the World, 1945-2006 40 so 60 PERCENTAGE 70 80 90 100 BY ANNIUAL A Less than 10,000 10 00 1 IILY INCO I 49.5 49.0 $14,999 I s3 9 I[ 58.l I[ 62.9 15 000--$19 999 20 000-$29 999 30 00 _ $39,999 ' 40 000-$49,999 0 00 $74,999 I 6'9.S, I 1s.6 11 9.4 82.2 $75 000--$99 999 100 000-$149 999 $150,000 and ov CoUeg,e grad ua e E 82.6 BY EIDUCATION Som1e col ege High school gradu te So me high school FIGURE 10.3 Differences in Voter Registration Rates by Social Group, 2004 (top) I 45.7 I 11. 0 I 61.5 I 13.1 The costs of voting in America are also high because of the frequency of American elections.   Two-year election cycles are nearly half the length of election cycles of similar democracies. Americans’ rare use of primary elections doubles the frequency with which Americans are asked to vote. Finally, in other countries, political parties play important roles in mobilizing voters and thus decrease the costs of voter turnout. Whereas in the 19th century American parties performed this mobilization role, the decline of American party organizations in the 20th century made American parties ill-equipped to perform it. While the costs of voting are high in America, many potential voters perceive the benefits of voting to be low. Americans often believe that:   one vote cannot make a difference it does not matter which party controls the government Turnout is the highest for presidential elections, which are held every four years, when about 50 percent of the voting age population votes. Midterm elections for congressional and gubernatorial elections are held in the even-numbered years that do not coincide with presidential elections. Without the presidency at stake, voter participation tends to be lower. About 33 percent of the voting age population votes in midterm elections. Even fewer vote in offyear, special, and primary elections. Primary Elections are elections used by political parties to select their candidates for general elections; these can be either open or closed. Open primaries are those in which the voter can wait until the day of the primary to choose which party to enroll in. Closed primaries are those in which voters must choose which party to enroll in prior to the day of the primary. California’s Primary     Closed Primary System A "closed" primary system governed California's primary elections until 1996. In a closed primary, only persons who are registered members of a political party may vote the ballot of that political party. Open Primary System The provisions of the "closed" primary system were amended by the adoption of Proposition 198, an initiative statute approved by the voters at the March 26, 1996 primary election. Proposition 198 changed the closed primary system to what is known as a "blanket" or "open" primary, in which all registered voters may vote for any candidate, regardless of political affiliation and without a declaration of political faith or allegiance. On June 26, 2000, the United States Supreme Court issued a decision in California Democratic Party, et. al. v. Jones, stating that California's "open" primary system, established by Proposition 198, was unconstitutional because it violated a political party's First Amendment right of association. Therefore, the Supreme Court overturned Proposition 198. Modified Closed Primary System California currently has a "modified" closed primary system. SB 28 (Ch. 898, Stats. 2000), relating to primary elections, was chaptered on September 29, 2000 and took effect on January 1, 2001. SB 28 implemented a "modified" closed primary system that permits unaffiliated ("decline to state") voters to participate in a primary election if authorized by an individual party's rules and duly noticed by the Secretary of State. (Ch. 898, Stats. 2000) There are structural features of the American electoral system that undermine the impact of individual votes.   America’s single-member plurality (SMP) electoral system tends to dilute the impact of individual votes in specific geographic areas, particularly when compared to proportional representation (PR) electoral systems. The electoral college system of selecting the president also decreases the potential impact of individual votes on electoral outcomes. Some electoral systems are proportional representation systems in which multiple seats are awarded for a particular geographic area, and each party receives a percentage of those seats proportional to the percentage of votes it received. Majority and plurality electoral systems tend to reduce the number of parties in a political system. Proportional representation electoral systems tend to increase the number of competitive political parties. Majority and plurality electoral systems tend to accentuate the importance of geographic district boundaries. Redistricting refers to the process of drawing election districts. When redistricting is viewed as an unfair process designed to give an unfair advantage to a particular group, candidate, or party, it is often called gerrymandering. Although television and other forms of media have made candidate characteristics and issue appeals more salient in voter decision-making, for many voters partisanship remains preeminent. 100 90 80 UJ t- , 70 60 z UJ u 50 c::: UJ a. . • 40 30 20 10 0 Democrats Republicans I I Voted for Bush Voted for other Voted for Kerry FIGURE 10.5 The Effect of Party Identification on the Vote for President, 2004 Independents Money and Politics As contemporary election campaigns have come to depend more on media, polls, and other “capital intensive” means of reaching voters, candidates and their campaigns increasingly rely on donors. Individual donors contribute largely based on issues and ideology, whereas professional givers like political action committees often donate money to campaigns to advance their cause and gain access to political officeholders. Campaign Spending 2008 In recent years, campaign finance reforms have sought to reduce the impact of money and fundraising on political campaigns. For example, the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) sought to reduce the amount of soft-money contributions to political parties. Still, critics charge that BCRA led to an increase in the influence of independent 527 committees, which funnel large amounts of money into elections through issue advocacy ads but are less accountable than political parties. The Benefits of Elections to Elites Democracies derive legitimacy from popular consent. Having been elected by the public, political elites work to translate the public support conferred upon them into a tool of governance. Individual politicians claim mandates for governmental actions based on electoral outcomes.   When they win, politicians claim that their victories amounted to a referendum for a certain set of policies. The larger the margin of victory, the more plausible the claim that voters conferred a “mandate.” Claims of “mandates” are often dubious:   People tend to vote for or against politicians for a variety of reasons, including policy, party, and personality. There is good evidence that voters vote retrospectively; that is, they vote to reward or punish the incumbent party rather than confer a mandate on an opposition candidate.   Elections are the most direct, equal, and authoritative means of gaining popular control over politicians. Failing to vote in elections surrenders the control of politicians (our agents) to those who do, in fact, turn out. The R les for Campa·gn Contr·bu ions Who may ,contr·bute. C ha rd t,o .... a cand i,d ate Individuals up to $2 000 money ')i Individuals up to $25000 a national party comm itte,e. Ind ivmd uall s up to $5 000 a PAC. PACs up to $5 000 a candi,date TABLE 10.1 Federal Campaign Finane Regulation (left) (top) if they an� ,contribut1i ng to a si1ngle can didate in a si ngl,e elecfon. they contribute to the campaigns of at least five ca ndi dates. lndiv�duals and PACs unlimited funds a S27' committee the funds ar1e us ed foir issue advocacy and the 527 co,1m mittee's efforts are not coo rd ilnated with .any political 1 campaign. lndivirduals and PACs up to $110 000 (' soft money"') a state party committee the money is used for voter regi stra� tion and get out� the-vote effo rts� 1 T1he Rules for Campa'ign Adverti'sing Who may not finance ... U nio, - s corporations, and non profit organizations broadcast issue ads mentioning federal candidates if ... they occur within sirxty days of a general e·lection or thirty days of a primary. TABLE 10.1 Federal Campaign Finance Regulation (left) (bottom) e Rules for es·de tial Pri _ aries and E ections may receive ... if. " . In primaries federal matching funds, dol la.r for dollar, up to $5 miUion they raise at least $5 000 in each of twenty states in contributions of $2S0 or less. In general ellections full federal funding (b t may spend no m1or than their £e,deral funding) they belong to a major party (minor-party candi· dates m1ay receive partial fundin1g). In any ,electio1n m10, ey from independent gro,ups (PACs and 527 committees) the groups' efforts are not tied directly to the offic1a I campaign. TABLE 10.1 Federal Campaign Finance Regulation (right) (top) i Important Defin itions, for Cam11paitg1n Finance Regullati:01n • P,oiiticall action1 committee (PAC): Private group th,at raises a11d d istrilbute,s, funds for use in ,election campaigns. 1 • 527 com11mittee: Tax-exemp,t o,rganization that ,en:gag,es in po,litical acuv·tiies, } often through 1unllimited ,r soft-1money contribut11ons. The committee is not re ,s,tricted by curre,nt law o,n ieam1paign financ,e, th us exploi1t� ng a l,oophol,e in the I 1ni terna I Reve,n u,e Se,rv i,ce, code,. 1 • Soft money: U n regu llated cont r 1 lb ut i,oin s to the nat 1 ,ona I p oil 11t� ca� pa rt i es, mom i nal ly to assi S't in party-building or voter 1reg�s,tratiion efForts rather than for p,a rtic ular campaigns. 1 i • Hard rn:01ney.: Contributions by individuals and PACs to a partii,cular pollit·cal campa.iign. hese c.,o,ntributions, ar,e subject to fiederal regula.·hon. • Federal matclhing funds: Federal funds that ma.t,ch, doll liar for dollar, all ind·viduall contributions of $25,0 ,oir lless, receiv ed by a candidate. To qua�ify, the candidate must raise at least $5,000 in individual c,ointributi,ons, of $2.50 or l ess in each of twenty states .. 1 1 • f:ederal Elect·on Commissi,on: The commi1ssion that oviersiees campaign i f nance practi ces i1n the United States. 1 TABLE 10.1 Federal Campaign Finance Regulation (right) (bottom)

Chapter 10. Elections

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