2 Mapping

2 MAPPING Spheres of Earth Geosphere - rocky part of Earth that is mostly solid and extends from the center of the Earth to the surface; divided into crust, mantle and core. Cryosphere - made up of all the frozen water on Earth; includes all ice, sea ice, glaciers, ice shelves and icebergs Atmosphere - is mostly made of invisible gases that surround the Earth, extending from the surface outward to 600km Hydrosphere - the part of Earth that is liquid water, including freshwater in lakes, rivers and marshes, salty oceans and rain and water droplets in clouds Biosphere - made up of living things and the areas where they are found., the rocks, soil, oceans, lakes, rivers and lower atmosphere all support life Lithosphere - the solid outer section of Earth, which includes Earth's crust, as well as the underlying cool, dense, and rigid upper part of the upper mantle. Troposphere - the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere where most types of clouds are found and where all weather occurs. Composition of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere Element (symbol) Crust % by mass % by volume Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88 Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48 Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49 Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18 Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11 Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33 Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42 Hydrosphere Troposphere % by volume % by volume 33.0 Nitrogen (N) 78.0 Hydrogen (H) Other 21.0 66.0 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0 Earth’s Coordinate System Equator - an imaginary line around the Earth forming the great circle that is equidistant from the north and south poles Latitude - an imaginary line around the Earth parallel to the equator. Measures distance North and South of the Equator. Longitude - an imaginary great circle on the surface of the earth passing through the north and south poles at right angles to the equator. Measures distance east and west of the Prime Meridian. ☆ The Earth rotates 15 degrees per hour. ☆ There are 24 time zones on Earth. Prime Meridian - The meridian, designated at 0° longitudes, which passes through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England. International Date Line - the line of longitude that marks where each new day begins, centered on the 180th meridian Polaris - the North Star located above the Earth's North Pole. The angle of Polaris and the Horizon is equal to the latitude of the Observer. Elevation- the vertical distance measured above sea level. Mapping Skills Topographic Map - a map that shows the surface features of a given area along with the elevation using contour lines. Contour Line - lines on a topographic map that connect points and represent equal elevation. Contour Interval - the distance of elevation between each contour line on a topographic map. Index Contour - A bolder and darker contour line that appears every other 5th line. Map Scale - symbols that help measure the distance on a map. ☆ Longitudes and latitudes appear on the corners and sides of maps. ☆ Degrees are divided into 60 smaller units to represent minutes; the smaller units are further divided into 60 more units to represent seconds. ☆ Buildings appear as black’s squares; Churches appear as black squares with crosses and schools appear with black squares with flags. ☆ Contour lines NEVER cross, but do merge on occasions. ☆ The closer contour lines are, the steeper the slope and vice versa. Topographic Profile - the side view of a portion of a topographic map. Gradient - the average slope; change in field value divided by distance. Benchmark - an area on a topographic map where the elevation is known exactly. Rule of V’s - the V shape formed by contour lines when it crosses a stream; it points uphill which means that any river flows in the opposite direction of the V. Maps in Earth Science ☆ Soaps are maps that show the amount of rainfall or snow. ☆ Isobar maps are maps that show air pressure. ☆ Topographic maps show elevation lines or contour lines. ☆ Map scales are found at the bottom of the map and used to find distance between points. ☆ A field map is any map where a measurable value can be collected. These types of maps are used in every area of science. ☆ Examples of field maps include maps that display magnetic fields, temperature, rainfall, snowfall, and elevation fields. Laws for Constructing a Field Map: 1. Isolines MUST connect points of equal value and MUST extend to the edge of the map. If the value is on the map, the line must pass through it, or else, it must pass through an estimate/imaginary point for the value. 2. Isolines are gentle, curving lines. They can never be straight, sharp lines with corners. 3. Isolines are always closed curves or loops even though the map may not always show the full picture. 4. Isolines can NEVER cross or touch. This would mean that the line has two different values. 5. Isolines run parallel to each other. Remember, they never touch.