Religion Notes

1. What is Religion a. Key Characteristics of Religion i. When people begin studying religions, they bring ideas from the religion they were raised in or from the predominant religion of their society 1. May assume every religion has a sacred book for example a. While many religions share these characteristics, some do not i. Ex. Many tribal religions have no written sacred scripture ii. Linguistic clues are a starting point for many scholars 1. Linguistic roots of “religion” a. Latin i. Re=again ii. Lig=join or connect iii. Common translation of religion is to join again or to reconnect iv. Still Latin 1. Religio= meant aw for the gods and concern for proper ritual 2. The term religion rose up in Western culture a. May not entirely or appropriately fit when applied across cultures i. Spiritual path may apply better for other iii. Definition of Religion 1. Definitions vary but can be limiting a. Some emphasize i. a sense of dependence on a higher power, ii. awareness of passing nature of life iii. the use of symbolism and ritual iv. structuring of time v. acceptance of moral rules b. Traditionally: i. Religion is a system of belief that involves worship of a God or gods, prayer, ritual and a moral code 2. More useful to list characteristics that are found in what are commonly accepted as religions a. Belief System i. Several beliefs fit together into fairly complete/systematic interpretation of the universe and the human being’s place in it ii. Also called a worldview b. Community i. The belief system is shared and practiced by a group c. Central Myths d. e. f. g. h. i. Stories expressing a group’s religious beliefs are retold and often reenacted ii. Ex. Life of Hindu god Krishna iii. Myth, as used by scholars, is a specialized term, 1. Meant to mean the stories are central to the religion Ritual i. Beliefs are enacted and made real through ceremonies Ethics i. Rules about human behavior are established ii. Often viewed as having been revealed from supernatural realm 1. Ex. 10 commandments 2. Can also be viewed as socially generated guidelines Characteristic Emotional Experiences i. Emotional experiences typically associated w/ religions 1. Dread 2. Guilt 3. Awe 4. Mystery 5. Devotion 6. Conversion 7. “Rebirth” 8. Liberation 9. Ecstasy 10. Bliss 11. Inner Peace Material Expression i. Physical Elements used in religions vary 1. Statues 2. Paintings 3. Musical compositions and instruments 4. Ritual objects 5. Flowers 6. Incense 7. Clothing 8. Architecture 9. Specific locations Sacredness i. Distinction is made between sacred and ordinary 1. Ceremonies are often used to highlight this distinction and use different language, clothing, and architecture 3. The Sacred a. All religions are concerned w/ deepest level of reality b. For most religions, core or origin of everything is sacred and mysterious i. Called many names 1. Ex. Great Mother, Great Spirit or the Divine ii. Regardless of name, people experience and explain sacred reality many different ways c. Monotheism i. Term that means a belief in one god ii. Partial to the Western World iii. In some systems, term often caries the notion of a Cosmic person 1. Often omnipotent (having total power over universe) 2. May be said to have personal aspects but is agreed that reality of god is beyond categories a. God is pure spirit and undefinable in words i. This notion describes sacredness that’s active in the world but also distinct (god is transcendent or unlimited by the world and all ordinary reality) d. Immanence i. In some religions, the sacred reality is not viewed as having personal attributes 1. Rather, it is more an energy or mysterious power seen as w/in the universe e. Pantheism i. A view in some religions where there is a tendency to speak of the universe not just as having been created but also as a manifestation of the sacred nature itself ii. Nothing is separate from the sacred iii. Greek for all divine iv. The sacred is seen as discoverable w/in the physical world and its processes 1. Nature is holy f. Polytheism i. Religion in which the sacred reality takes the form of many coexisting gods ii. The gods may be fairly separate entities 1. Each are in charge of an aspect of reality 2. May also be multiple manifestations of the same basic sacred reality g. Other Prominent Views i. Atheism 1. Tendency to deny existence of any god or gods ii. Agnosticism 1. Tendency to argue that existence of god cannot be proven iii. Nontheism 1. Tendency to take no position 4. Religious Symbolism a. Religions i. Present views of reality ii. Most speak of the sacred iii. Because of variety of teachings, some religions conflict w/ others 1. Common to assert religions express truth symbolically b. Symbol i. Something fairly concrete, ordinary and universal ii. Can represent and help humans intensely experience something of greater complexity iii. Ex. water can represent spiritual cleansing iv. Common to find symbolism in religious art and ritual v. Interpretations have played important role in dream analyzing 1. Dreams often thought to be messages from supernatural realm a. Provide a key to the future i. View is less common nowadays, but dreams are still seen as significant vi. Recurrence of a symbolic story of transformation is seen in various religions 1. State of original purity degenerates or a battle to fight disorder leads to sacrificial death resulting in renewed sense of purity/order vii. Religions frequently use words in a symbolic way 1. Ex. awakened c. Religious symbols, myths and terminology at times suggest universal symbolic language that all religions speak 5. Speculations on Religion Sources a. Why does religion exist i. Most evident answer is that it serves many human needs 1. Primary need is having means to deal w/ human mortality a. Religion can help aid coping w/ death b. Religious rituals can offer comfort 2. Humans also desired good health, regular supply of food and conditions needed to ensure these things a. Before modern science, humans looked to religion and often still do for these benefits 3. Humans are social by nature a. Religion offers companionship and fulfillment that can come from belong to a group i. Also provides structure for caring for the needy 4. Humans seek out and create artistic forms of expression a. Religion stimulates art, music and dance and often integrates them in a living i. Has been inspirational source for many buildings in the world 5. Most basic function is to respond to humans’ natural wonder about themselves and the cosmos a. Relgions helps humans relate to the unknown universe by answering basic questions of: i. Who we are? ii. Where we come from iii. Where we are going ii. Many scholars think religion is a human attempt to feel more secure in an unfeeling universe 1. E.B. Tylor a. 1832-1917 b. English anthropologist c. Believed religion was rooted in spirit worship d. Noted how frequently spirits are seen in religions as having control over natural forced i. Also noted how commonly religions see those who die as passing into the spirit world e. Fear of the power of these spirits made it necessary for people to find ways to please them i. Religion offered such a way and thus allowed the living to avoid the spirits’ dangerous power and convert it into a force that worked for the good of human beings 2. James Frazer a. 1854-1941 b. Scottish anthropologist c. Author of The Golden Bough d. Saw origins of religion in early attempts by humans to influence nature e. Identified religion as an intermediate stage between magic and science 3. Sigmund Freud a. 1856-1939 b. Theorized that belief in god or gods arises from long lasting impressions made on adults by their childhood experiences in which parents play a major part i. Adults then project sense of their parents into their image of their god or gods ii. These experiences are basis for adults’ attempts to deal w/ anxieties of a complicated present and an unknown future c. Argued that since a major function of religion was to help humans feel secure in an unsafe universe, religion becomes less necessary as humans gain greater physical and mental security 4. William James a. 1842-1910 b. Psychologist c. Viewed religion as a positive way of fulfilling psychological needs d. Praised religion’s positive influence on individual lives 5. Rudolf Otto a. 1869-1937 b. German theologian c. Argued that religions emerge when people experience the aspect of reality that is essentially mysterious d. Numinous Awe i. Emotional result the frightens humans but also brings a feeling of fascination 6. Carl Gustav Jung a. 1875-1961 b. Described religion as something that grew out of the individual’s need to arrive at personal fulfillment (individuation) c. Believed many religious insignia can be seen as symbols of personal integration and human wholeness i. Such signs were “the path to the center” d. As people age, they use religion to understand their place in the universe and can use it to prepare for death i. Religion is a noble human response to the complexity and depth of reality 7. Karl Marx a. 1818-1883 b. Marxism i. Many types have been strongly atheistic c. For Marx, religion had both a bad and good side d. Religion emerged naturally because people felt poor, powerless and alienated from their work i. Religion also gave great consolation e. Religion was a symptom of modern society’s poverty and inadequacy i. Thus, need for society would dissolve when society improved 8. Wilhelm Schmidt a. 1868-1954 b. Austrian ethnographer and philologist c. Argued that all humankind once believed in a single High god i. Beliefs in lesser gods and spirits were added later 9. Animism a. A worldview that sees all elements of natures as being filled with spirit or spirits b. Influenced by evolution, some have speculated that religions evolve naturally from animism to polytheism and then to monotheism i. Critics view this as biased in favor of monotheism mostly because the view originally was suggested by Christian scholars b. Patterns Among Religions i. Views of the World and Life 1. Religions must provide answers to the great questions that people ask a. Ex. How did the universe come into existence? b. Questions do not vary but the answers do 2. Given the variety of worldviews, religions define the nature of sacred reality, the universe, the natural world, time and human purpose differently a. Also differ in attitudes toward role of words in expressing the sacred and their relations to other religious traditions 3. The nature of Sacred Reality a. Some religions speak of sacred as transcendency b. Other religions speak of sacred reality as being immanent (within nature and humans) i. Can be experienced as energy or holiness c. Can be impersonal entity or have personal attributes d. In some it is hard to point to a sacred reality at all i. Ex. Buddhism 4. The nature of the Universe a. Some religions see the universe as being created by an intelligent, personal creator who continues to guide the universe according to cosmic plan b. Other religions view universe as eternal w/ no beginning or end c. Implications of two positions are important to what is central in a religion and how humans act in regard to this central belief i. If universe is created, especially by transcendent deity 1. The center of sacredness is the creator rather than the universe 2. Humans imitate the creator by changing and perfecting the world ii. If the universe is eternal 1. The material universe itself is sacred, perfect and requires no change 5. The Human Attitude toward Nature a. Some religions see natures as the realm of evil forces that must be overcome i. Nature is gross and contaminating and exists in opposition of the nonmaterial world of the spirit 1. This view is known as Dualism a. Held by some forms of Christianity, Jainism and Hinduism b. Other religions, nature is seen as sacred and needs no change i. Belief held by some forms of Daoism and Shinto c. Religions like Judaism and Islam hold that natural world originated from divine action, but humans are called upon to continue shaping the world 6. Time a. Religions emphasizing creation (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) i. Tend to see time as linear ii. Time is limited and unrepeatable and thus important b. Other religions (Buddhism) i. Time is cyclical ii. Universe simply moves through endless changes which repeat over grand periods of time 1. Thus, time is not crucial or real because universe is not moving to a final point 7. Human Purpose a. In some religions, humans are part of great divine plan i. Each person is unique but individual meaning comes from cosmic plan 1. Plan may be viewed as struggle between good and evil w/ humans at the center and good/evil at work w/in a. Because humans’ actions are important, they must be guided by prescribed moral code meant to be individually internalized ii. View is significant in Judaism, Christianity and Islam b. In other religions, human life is not so dramatic i. Individuals are only part of a much larger realities ii. Common view in Daoism and Shinto iii. Confucianism 1. Individual is part of the family and of society iv. Such religions place emphasis on how individuals can maintain harmony w/ the whole and less on individual rights 1. Actions are guided by society, tradition and a sense of mutual obligation 8. Words and Scriptures a. Some religions i. Sacred is found in written/spoken words ii. In these religions, reading, copying and using sacred words in ceremony, art and music is what is important iii. Importance of words found in: 1. Indigenous religions a. Pass traditions orally 2. Hinduism 3. Judaism 4. Christianity 5. Islam b. Other religions i. Show mistrust of words ii. Instead value silence and wordless meditation iii. Usually seen in Daoism and Zen Buddhism 1. Utilize language in practices 2. Have produced literature 3. Find language limited in expressing richness or totality of reality 9. Exclusiveness/Inclusiveness a. Some religions i. Emphasize sacred is distinct from world ii. Order must be imposed by separating good from bad, true from false iii. To share in sacredness means separation 1. Ex. withdrawal from certain foods iv. Judaism, Christianity and Islam 1. Among religions that have been exclusive b. Other Religions i. Stress inclusiveness ii. Emphasized social harmony, inadequacy of language or relativity of truth iii. Have accepted belief in many deities iv. Led to the admission of many types of beliefs and practices into their religions 1. Makes it possible for an individual to belong to several religions 2. Ex. Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism ii. Focus of Beliefs and Practices 1. Sacramental Orientation a. Emphasizes carrying out rituals and ceremonies regularly and correctly as the path to salvation b. All religions have some degree of ritual i. Some religions, correct ritual is believed to influence processes of nature c. Ceremonial tendency is predominant in most indigenous religions i. Ex. Roman Catholic 2. Prophetic Orientation a. Stresses contact w/ the sacred is ensured by proper belief and by adherence to moral rules b. Implies humans may be important intermediary between the believer and the sacred c. Prominent aspect of Judaism, Protestant Christianity and Islam d. Ex. television crusades of evangelistic ministers 3. Mystical Orientation a. Seeks union w/ a reality greater than oneself i. i.e. god, process of nature, universe, etc. b. Often techniques for lessening the sense of one’s individual identity i. i.e. seated meditation ii. techniques help individual experience greater unity c. Prominent aspect of Upanishadic, Hinduism, Daoism and some schools of Buddhism d. More common in religions stressing the immanence of the sacred or are nontheistic i. Important but less prominent tendency in Judaism, Christianity and Islam 4. Any of the three orientations may be dominant in a religion a. Other two orientations might be found in the same religion but to a lesser extent but also to a different purpose i. Ex. ceremony can be utilized to help induce mystical experience iii. Views of Male and Female 1. Religions have had much to say about the roles of men and women on earth and in divine spheres 2. In many influential religions today a. The sacred is considered male and full-time religious specialists are frequently male i. Yet this may not have always been the case 1. Evidence suggests that female divinities once played an important role in cultures and religions 2. Most significant female deity was usually associated w/ fertility and motherhood a. Known by many names i. Ex. Freia, Astarte, Asherah, Aphrodite b. Male Dominance in Religion i. Arguably came about as a result of the growth of city-states which needed organized defense 1. Thus, status of men was elevated because of fighting ability ii. Confucianism 1. In Asia a. Has been distrustful of women in general b. Ordinarily refused them leadership roles iii. Buddhism 1. Despite recognition in scripture that women can be enlightened, the great majority of leaders have been men c. Multidisciplinary Approaches to The Study of Religion i. Religion has influenced so many areas of human life that it is a subject of religious studies as well as other disciplines 1. Most recently, linguistics, literary theory and cultural studies have offered new ways of seeing and interpreting religion ii. Common Approaches to Religion 1. Psychology a. Soul study b. Deals w/ human mental states, emotions and behaviors c. A fairly young discipline d. Taken a close look at religion because it offers rich human material to explore 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. e. Areas of study include religious influences on: i. Child rearing ii. Human behavior iii. Gender expectations iv. Self-identity v. Group dynamics in religion vi. Trance states vii. Comparative mystical experiences Mythology a. Study of religious tales, texts and art b. Has uncovered some universal patterns c. Full of recurrent images and themes i. Ex. tree of knowledge Philosophy a. Love of wisdom b. In some ways originated from a struggle w/ religion i. Both pose many of the same questions, but philosophy do not automatically accept the answers given by any religion to them 1. Instead, seeks answers independently c. Follows reason rather than religious authority i. Tries to fit answers into rational, systematic whole d. Work of individuals while religion is a community experience i. Philosophy tries avoiding emotion while religion nurtures it Theology a. Study of the divine b. Study of topics as they relate to one particular religious tradition c. Theologian i. Individual who usually studies their own belief system 1. Ex. Christian minister might study Christian theology The Arts a. Religious architecture often uses symmetry, height and archaic styles to suggest the sacred b. Religious music frequently employs slow pace and repeated rhythms to induce tranquility c. Religious art incorporates gold, haloes, equilateral designs and circles i. Suggests otherworldliness and perfection Anthropology a. Study of human beings b. Interested in how religious influence the ways different cultures deal w/ issues such as: i. family interaction ii. individual roles iii. property rights iv. marriage v. child rearing vi. social hierarchies vii. division of labor 7. Archeology a. Study of origins b. Explores remains of earlier civilizations c. Often uncovers remains of religious buildings from ancient cultures d. When possible, translate writings left by earlier people e. Occasionally sheds light on how one religion has influenced another i. Ex. excavation of a cuneiform library at Nineveh revealed a story similar (possibly influenced) to the biblical story of Noah and the flood f. Can also reveal religious materials enabling scholars to decipher an entire writing system i. Ex. early 19th century discovery of the Rosetta Stone 1. Contained same inscription in 3 different scripts 2. Helped unlocked Egyptian hieroglyphics’ meaning 8. Linguistics and Literary Theory a. Linguistics i. Study sometimes involves search for patterns that may underlies all languages ii. Suggested general patterns and structures that may underlie human consciousness iii. Interest in language patterns brought new attention to the potential structures behind religious tales, rituals and other expressions of religious beliefs/attitudes iv. Examined religious language for implications and hidden values b. Literary Theory i. Studied written texts of religions as reflections of cultural assumptions and values ii. Pointed out some of the ways in which religions have treated women and minorities as different from more dominant groups iii. Shown that non-written material can be viewed as forms of communication and can be studied in many ways that written texts are studied 1. Ex. religious statues iii. The Study of Religion 1. Religions were originally primarily studied w/in their own religious traditions a. Goal was that faith/devotion would be illuminated by intellectual search b. Continues in denominational school 2. New Form of the Study of Religion a. Took form two centuries ago b. Several causes for this change i. The Early Scientific Movement 1. Accepted belief in creator god but rejected belief in miracles 2. Demanded scientific proof for belief 3. Forced people to revise some traditional religious beliefs ii. Growth of Historical Studies 1. Academic experts began question literal truth of statements and stories in scriptures a. Ex. Noah and the Ark iii. Growth of Trade and Travel 1. Faraway cultures were becoming known a. Their religions were colorful but also wise i. Ex. morality taught by Buddhism c. University World i. Study of religions was at first fragmented 1. Greatest questions of religion were studied in philosophy departments 2. Other aspects could be found in history, psychology, anthropology and art departments a. No religious studies department to unify these interests ii. Fragmented approach changed mid-20th century 1. Departments of religious study were formed a. Became regular part of academic life 2. Religious study has expanded further a. Presently examined from additional/unexpected POV i. Ex. Neurology- Are religious beliefs and practices part of our genetic makeup? iv. Recent Theories 1. Archeology, anthropology and other fields of behavioral science has influenced recent thinking on religion 2. At one point it was thought that religions were best traced to a great founder (Moses, Jesus or Muhammad, etc.) a. Sociologists point out that religions seem to emerge from whole tribes/peoples b. Emile Durkheim i. 1858-1917 ii. French sociologist iii. Noted how religions reinforce values of groups iv. Approach was empirical 1. Based on research c. Claude Levi-Strauss i. 1908-2009 ii. Continued Durkheim’s approach iii. Did fieldwork in Brazil 1. Studied mythology of tribal groups 2. Saw similarities in myths of indigenous peoples and saw structural similarities among kinship patterns, languages and social relations iv. Theorized that structures in human mind formed these similarities 1. Called Structuralism 2. Influenced study of religion particularly regarding: a. Taboos b. Marriage c. Laws about food purity d. Post-Structuralism i. Countermovement to structuralism ii. Emphasized individuality of each experience iii. Argued belief in grand structures may keep investigators from appreciating that individuality iv. Michel Foucault 1. 1926-1984 2. Thought to be primary exponent of poststructuralism 3. Work focused on those marginalized by society a. Ex. prisoners v. Jacques Derrida 1. 1930-2004 2. Began w/ structuralist approached a. Moved away in order to focus on language, meaning and interpretation 3. Known for Deconstruction a. Going behind ordinary interpretation of texts in order to discover new cultural meanings 3. Religious investigation relies on anthropologists who have lived w/ native people and learned their languages a. E.E Evans-Pritchard i. 1902-1973 ii. Lived among the Azande and Nuer people in Africa b. Clifford Geertz i. 1926-2006 ii. Lived in Indonesia and Morocco 1. Wrote about practices there iii. Championed “thick description” 1. A description of the appearances of rituals and religious objections, but ALSO of their meaning for the practitioners 4. Phenomenological Approach a. Emphasizes direct experiential research to gather data b. Seeks to understand religious acts/objects from the consciousness of the believers c. Tries to avoid projecting the researcher’s beliefs and expectations into the data d. Specialists have sometimes focused on one religion e. Wendy Doniger (O’Flaherty 1940) and Diana Eck (1945) i. Specialized in Hinduism ii. Writings/other work incorporated other world religions d. Key Critical Issues i. Research based approach 1. Valuable but problematic and brings questions (both moral and in regard to the legitimacy of information obtained) 2. Revealed the enormous variety w/in major religions a. Some religions have blended w/ earlier religion and produced unique hybrids i. W/ regards to Buddhism or Christianity 1. Do they really exist or are they just useful fictions? 3. Religious experience of women w/in a religious tradition may be quite different from that of men a. Ex. Islam i. Women’s religious experience may be primarily centered in the home while men’s may center around the mosque 4. Age may contribute to a difference in religious experience a. Ex. child vs. adult 5. The varying meaning of being a Buddhist, Christian or Hindu depends on the culture and period 6. Religions are not separate and unchanging a. They are grand patterns e. Why Study? i. Studying religions helps round out a person’s education because of their wide range and influence 1. Enriches other aspects of experience of many other related subjects ii. Insight into Religious Traditions 1. Each religion is a complex system of values, relationships, personalities and human creativity iii. Insight into what Religions Share 1. Studying religions requires objectivity and sympathy 2. Being a believer brings a special insight and outsider cannot have but an outsider can also appreciate things not always obvious to insiders iv. Insight into People 1. A person’s religious backgrounds offers insight into their attitude and values a. Something valuable to successful human relation in both public and private life v. Tolerance and Appreciation of Differences 1. Tolerance of differences is valuable, enjoyment of differences is better vi. Intellectual Questioning 1. Studying religion sharpens perception of the individual claims of each and allows important questions to be examined more closely vii. Insight into Everyday Life 1. Religious influences can be found everywhere in modern culture a. Religious studies allow humans to recognize and appreciate these influences viii. Appreciation of the Arts 1. Art and religion cross often ix. Enriched Experience of Travel 1. Studying religion allows one to appreciate cultural forms in new ways a. Provides background to fully enjoy many places i. Ex. Mayan Pyramid in Mexico x. Insight into Family Traditions 1. Religions influence many cultures strongly, with families adopting values centered around their religion even if they are not actively religious a. Values can be educational, gender roles, food, etc. xi. Help in One’s Own Religious Quest