Chapter 1. Lecture Notes - Public Speaking

Public Speaking Chapter 1 1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION? Many people develop negative feelings about their ability to communicate orally, anticipating that their communication efforts will fail They feel that whatever gain they might make as a result of engaging in communication isn‘l worth the fear they experience. As a result, apprehensive speakers avoid communication situations and, when forced participate Speak as little as possible. -General and Specific Apprehension Some people have a general communication apprehension that shows itself in all communication situations. These people suffer from trait apprehensiouwa fear of ritei'nmunication generally, regardless of the Specific situation. Their fear appears in conversations. Small group setting, and public speaking situations. Other people experience communication apprehension in only certain communication situations These people suffer from state apprehension a fear that is specific to a given communication situation. For example, a Speaker may fear public speaking but have no difficulty in talking with two or three other people. Or,' a speaker may fear job interviews but have no fear of public speaking. State apprehension is extremely common. Most people experience it for some situations. If you haven't done so already. You may want to take the accompanying test, "How Apprehensive Are You in Conversations ?" and compare your apprehension score in public Speaking with that for conversation. -Elements of Public Speaking Speaking you're the sole focus of attention and are usually being evaluated for your performance. Therefore. Experiencing fear or anxiety isn't strange or unique. Although you may at first view apprehension as harmful, it's not. Necessarily so as the "TIP" from Dorothy Leeds makes clear. In fact, apprehension can. Work for you. Fear can energize you. It may motivate you to work a little harder to produce a speech that will be better than it might have been. Further, the audience cannot see the apprehension you might be experiencing. Liven though you may think that the audience can hear your heart beat faster and faster, they can't. They can't see your knees tremble. They can't sens-e your dry throat at least not most of the time. -Culture and Communication Apprehension The cultural composition of your audience can contribute to uncertainty, fear, and anxiety. All. of which are intimately related to communication apprehension (Stephen and Stephen 1992). When you're in an intercultural situationw sey your audience is composed largely of people of cultures very different from your Dim you're more uncertain about the situation and about their possible responses. Not surprisingly, most people react. Negatively to high uncerlaintyi and develop a decreased attraction for these other people (Gudykunst and Nishida 1984 ; Gudykunst, Yang, and Nishida 1985). When you're sure of the situation and can predict What will happen. You’re more likely to feel comfortable and at ease. But when the situation is uncertain and you cannot predict what will happen, you become more apprehensive (Gudykunst and Kini 1992,). Intercultural situations can also create anxiety, a feeling very similar to apprehension. Anxiety may he felt for a number of reasons (Stephen and Stephen 1985). For examplejif your prior relationships with members of your audience's culture were few or unpleasant, Lhen you're likely to expefiance greater apprehension than if these prior experiences were numerous And positive. Your thoughts and feelings about the group will also influence your apprehension. For example, if you hold stereotypes and prejudices. or if you feel that you're very different from these others. You’re likely to experience more. Apprehension than if you saw these people as similar to you. 2. DEALING WITH COMMUNICATION APPREHENSIDN If you experience some apprehension and would like to acquire more control over it, the following guidelines should help you feel more comfortable giving speeches (Richmond anti McCroskey 1997 ; Cheek 1989). If you continue to experience extremely high levels of communication apprehension or if you're so fearful of the speaking situation that you simply cannot function, talk with your instructor after completing this unit. There are several ways you can deal with your own public speaking anxiety : (1) reversing the factors that cause anxiety, (2) cognitive restructuring and performance visualization, (3) systematically desensitizing yourself, and (4) using some basic skills. -Reversing the Factors That Cause Apprehension : There are five factors that contribute to speaker apprehension ; if you can reserve these factors or lessen their impact, you'll be able to reduce your anxiety. These five factors are the new and the different, subordinate status, conspicuousness, lack. Of similarity, and prior history (Realty 1988). New and different situations. For example, your first day at work or your first job interview, will make you anxious. Since public speaking is likely to be relatively new and different to many of you, it's a situation Intercultural situations can also engender fear. You might, for example, have a greater fear of saying something that will prove offensive or of revealing your own prejudices. The fear easily translates into apprehension. Intercultural situations can also create anxiety, a feeling very similar to apprehension. Anxiety may he felt for a number of reasons (Stephen and Stephan 1985). For examplegif your prior relationships with members of your audience's culture were few or unpleasant, then you're likely to experience greater apprehension than if these prior experiences were numerous and positive. Your thoughts and feelings about the group will also influence your apprehension. For example, if you hold stereotypes and prejudices, or if you feel that you're very different from these others. You’re likely to experience more apprehension than if you saw these people as similar to you 3. DEALING WITH CDMMUNICATION APPREHENSION If you experience some apprehension and would like to acquire more control over it, the following guidelines should help you feel more comfortable giving speeches (Richmond and Motlroskey 1997 ; Cheek 1989). If you continue to experience extreiziely high levels of communication apprehension or it you're so fearful of the speaking situation that you simply cannot function, tall : with your instructor after completing this unit. There are several ways you can deal with your own public speaking anxiety : (1) reversing the {actors that cause anxiety. (2) cognitive restructuring and performance visualization. (3) systematically desensitizing yourself, and (4) using some basic skills. -Reversing the Factors That Cause Apprehension There are five factors that contribute to speaker apprehension ; if you can reserve these factors or lessen their impact. You’ll be able to reduce your anxiety. These five factors are the new and the different, subordinate status, conspicuousness lack of similarity, and prior history (Beatty 1988). New and different situations for example your first day at work or your first job interview, willrnake you anxious. Since public speaking is likely to be relatively new and different to many of you it's a situation that's likely to generate anxiety. As the novelty of the situation is reduced. Your anxiety is also reduced. This is one reason why you're likely to expe- ft Rience your greatest fear during the first few minutes of the speech ; as you continue. The novelty of the situation will wear off and you'll becomeless nervous. Gaining experience in a wide variety of public speaking situations will help you reduce their newness and thereby reduce your fear. If you see yourself as having subordinate status as for example, when you feel that others are better speakers or that they know more than you do. Your anxiety increases. Thinking positively about yourself and being thorough in your preparation reduces this particular cause of anxiety in a similar way if you feel that members of another group are competing with you or evaluating you then you're likely to experience more apprehension than if the situation were more cooperative and equal. Thinking more positively about yourself and being thorough in your preparation are helpful techniques for reducing this particular cause of anxiety. When you feel conspicuous or when you feel you're the center of attention as you normally would in, say, addressing a large audience your amtiety may increase. Realizing that you're only one of a number of speakers the audience will hear today may help reduce this feeling of conspicuousuess Similarly thinking of public speaking as a type of cpnversahon (Some theorists call public speaking "enlarged conyersaoon') may help reduce this feeling Or if you're comfortable talking m‘srnall groups, Visualizing your audience as an enlarged small group wrll hkely dispel some of the anxiety you feel. When you feel you lack similarity with your audience. that you have little in cormnon with your listeners as you might when addressing an audience from cultures different from your own or when addressing people from another department within a large corporation you may feel that your audience doesn‘t empathize with you and so you may become anxious. Try emphasizing the commonalties you share with your listenersas you plan your speeches as well as during the actual presentation. This will help you see yourself as a part of the audience and may also suggest areas of similarity you might integrate into your speech. A prior history of apprehension is likely to increase anxiety and a kind of spiral. may be established: you experience apprehension in one situation that leads you to feel greater apprehension in the second that creates greater apprehension in the third and on and on. Your objective is to prevent this spiral or break it if it already exists by engaging in public speaking experiences that have positive consequences and prove rewarding. As you build up your positive public speaking experiences you'll feel more comfortable, and the corn fort and control that you feel in one speech will help you feel even more comfortable and more in control in the next, and on and on. Cognitive Restructuring and Performance Visualization The assumption of this approach is that your own unrealistic beliefs cause apprehension. For example set yourself unachievable goals (Everyone must love me, I have to be thoroughly competent I have to be the best in everything), and you logically fear failure This fear of failure (and the irrational beliefs behind it) are at the foundation of your apprehensron Maintain realistic expectations for yourself and your audience rou Don’t have to be perfect lie the host you can lie whatever that is. Compete with yourself Your second speech does not have to be betterthan the speech of the previous speaker It should, however be better than your own first speech Focus on your success on your successfully meeting your new and realistic goals. Recognize too that even if you give six 10-minute speeches in this class, you will only have spoken for 60 minutes . . . one hour . . . 1/24th ofa day. . . 1/ 35.0641h of your fouroyear college life. Let your apprehension motivate you to produce a more thoroughly prepared and rehearsed speech. Let it not however upset you to the point where it harms your other activities. A special type of cognitive restructuring is performance visualization designed specifically to reduce both the outward manifestations of communicationtion apprehension and negative thinking (Ayres and Hopf 1993) In peroformance visualization you work toward developing a positive attitude and a positive self-perception by visualizing yourself in the role of an effective public speaker Once you can visualize yourself as this effective speaker You devote attention to modeling your performance on that of this effective speaker in a way imitating this effective speaker If you wish to try performance visualization, take a look at Practically Speaking 3.3 on page 56 : it provides specific instructions for working with performance visualization. -Systematic Desensitization Systematic desensitization is a technique for dealing with a variety of fears. Including those involved in public Speaking (Wolpe 1957 : GossThompson rind Olds 1978 ; Richmond and McCroskey 1 997) The general idea is to create a hierarchy of behaviors leading up to the desired but feared behavior (say speaking before an audience) One specific hierarchy Might look like this : -Giving a speech in class -introducing another Speaker to the class -Speaking in a group in front of the class -Answering a question in class -Asking a question in class You'd begin at the bottom of this hierarchy and rehearse this behavior mentally over a period of days until you could clearly visualize asking a question in class without any uncomfortable anxiety Once you can accomplish this You can move to the second level. Here you visualize. And mentally practice the somewhat more threatening "answnring a question" Once you can do this, you can move to the third level and so on until you get to the desired behavior. In creating you : himarcliy try to use small steps. This enables you to get from one stup to tho next more easily Each success makes the next step easier You might then go on to engage in the aotual behaviors after you've comfortably visualized than) : ask a question, answer a question, and so on. -Skill Acquisition The fourth general approach to dealing with communication apprehension is to acquire specific skills and techniques for greater control over apprehension and for increased speaking effectiveness. Here are some useful techniques. Prepare and Practice Thoroughly Much of the fear you experience is a fear of impending failure. Adequate and even extra preparation will lessen thoughts of failure and the accompanying apprehension lack Valenti (1982) president of the Motion Picture Association of America and speechwriter for Lyndon Johnson put it this way : "The most effective antidote to stage fright and other calamities of speechmaking is total, slavish, monkisli preparation." Because apprehension is greatest during the beginning of the Speech, try memorizing the first few sentences of your speech to eliminate any possibility of not saying them correctly or forgetting them If there are complicated facts or figures be sure to write these out and plan to read them. Again this procedure will help lessen your fear of making a mistake Gain Experience Learning to speak in public is similar to learning to driv a car or ski down a mountain With experience, the initial fears and anxieties give way to feelings of control. Comfort, and eventually. 4. DEVELOPING CONFIDENCE Confidence separates the effective from the ineffective public speaker. Confidence also seems to separate the speaker who experiences enjoy ment from the speaker who feels only discomfort and anxiety Fortunately, confidence is a quality that everyone can develop and inorease Here are a few suggestions for developing your self‘cenfidenne as a public speaker. -Prepare Thoroughly Preparation is probably the major factor in instilling confidence in a speak or as it is in reducing apprehension Preparation includes everything you do from the time you begin thinking about your speech to the time you deliver it The more you know about your topic and your audience the more confident you'll feel and the more confidence you'll project. Thorough preparation will also lesson any l‘uars you might have of not being able to answer audience questions. -Familiarize Yourself with the Public Speaking Sitation Familiarize yourself with the arrangement of the room in which you'll speak. The type of audience you'll address, and so on Familiarity with any situation increases your ability to control it The public speaking situation is no exception Perhaps a day or two before you're to speak Stand in front of the room and look it over try to imagine the entire speaking situation as it will be when you deliver your speech then, when you do go to the front of the room to give your first speech you‘ll face the familiar instead of the iniexpected If possible. Rehearse in the room in which you'll give your speech. -Develop the Desire to Communicate Avoid rehearsingifear responses (I‘m going to forget my speech No one will like : my speech. I'm young loilook foolish) Replace any thoughts of fear With thoughts of control Replace selcritical statements with thoughts of confidence Tell yourself Uiat the experience can be an enjoyable one it really can be ! With time You’ll find that you're operating with a more positive and confident view of the entire public speaking experience. -Rehearse Rehearsing your speech and its presentation and thus sensing your control over it will increase self-confidence Rehearse your speech often and aloud If possible rehearse in front of a few supportive listeners. Rehearsals that approximate the actual speaking situation will especiall help reduce the novelty of the situation and will help build your contidonce as a public speaker. Rehearse your speech as a confident fully in-coutrol public speaker Rehearse with a positive attitude and perspective When you then present the actual speech you‘ll find that you can present the speech as you rehearsed it with confidence, Each public speaking experience like each rehearsal should add to your self confidence After five or six speeches you should be looking forward to future speaking engagements -Engage in Self-Affirmation Because the way you talk to and about yourself will influence what you think of yourself it's often helpful to engage in self-affirmation Try telling yetu‘self that you're competent and that you'll be successful Read through the list of self-affirming phrases presented here and try to feel what they're attempting to convey. l'm a generally competent person and Speaker. l have some good personality characteristics that will come across effectively in public speaking. Neither I nor my speech have to be loved by everyone. i am worthwhile listening to because I‘m me. My past failures and inadequacies don't have to influence everything I do. i am creative and that will come across in my speaking. i think critically and will be able to analyze and present complex ideas to others. I'm a self-starter. I can be effective in most things I do, including public speaking I'm flexible and can adjust to different situation and different audience response. Proiect Your Confidence Throughout your speech, try to project your confidence ; make the audience see you as a mnfident. fully-in-control speaker Here are a few suggestions : Remain emotionally controlled if the audience sees you allowing eurotions to get the best of you you’ll appear lacking in confidence. Avoid Weak verbal expressions For example, asking for agreement with tag questions "it seems like a good idea, don't you think ?" or using lots of indefinite modifiers such as "pretty good" or "fairly inexpensive" will make your audience see your message and yourself as less sure and less confident than you'd want At the same time, avoid weak nonverbals Self-touching movements playing with your hair Touching your face, or aimlessly shifting from one foot to the other will also make you seem to lack confidence. -Demonstrate your own consistency ; show your audience that you have the confidence in your own convictions to stick with them over time. -Develop a Communicator Self-Image A "communicator self-image" implies a view of yourself as a capable proficient and tonfident comnnmicator. See yourself as an advocate who is effective in getting your message across to others. Think of yourself as a confident public speaker in addition, act as a confident speaker would. For example, maintain eye contact with your listeners and stand tall. Acting confident will go a long way toward actually increasing your confidence. This process occurs in three steps : (1) You act as if you're confident. (Z) You come to think of yourself as confident. (3) You become confident. Build your positive qualities by acting as if you already have them. This "acting as if" will help you make these positive qualities : 1 more integral part of your thoughts and behaviors.